
Rnok ' '^'^ 



X 



The Domestic Sheep: 

ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL 
MANAGEMENT. 



BY HENRY STEWART, 

AUTHOR OF 

The Shepherd's Manual ; The Dairyman's Manual ; Irrigation 

for the Farm ; Garden and Orchard ; The 

Culture of Farm Crops. 



SECOND EDITION. 



"The Sheep is the most profitablest 
animal a man can have." — Fitzherbert. 



CHICAGO: 

American Sheep Breeder Press. 
1900, 



/ 



c-^. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by the 

AMERICAN SHEEP RREEDER PRESS, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



V 



7/ 



PREFACE. 



Since the publicatio>u of the Shepherds' Manual by the 
present author a vast increase has occurred in the estima- 
tion in which the sheep has been held by Americain farm- 
ers, and indeed this great agricultural interest has ad- 
vanced by strides everywhere all over the civilized world 
where agriculture has reached its full development. And 
while the work mentioned is still in prmt and circulation, 
and fills a useful place in the special literature of the farm, 
yet circumstances have occurred which malie it desirable 
that some newer work of wider adaptation to the great in- 
terest involved should be undertaken for the information 
of all concerned in the rearimg of sheep and for the en- 
couragement of this part of farm industry. 

This present work is therefore offered to shepherds in 
the hope that it may be found useful and effective in ad- 
vancing this important interest, and in assisting to more 
fully develop the breeding and rearing of sheep. 

HENRY STEWART. 



CONTENTS. 



Preface • • i" 

CHAPTER I. 

The Natural History of the Sheep 7-21 

Antiquity of the Sheep Husbandry— Lessons to be 
Learned from Ancient Shepherds— The Anatomy of the 
• Sheep : Its Mouth and Teeth ; Its Stomach ; Its Intes- 
tines and Their Functions. 

CHAPTER II. 

The Varieties and Breeds of Sheep 22-102 

The American Merino— Points of Excellence in a 
Merino— Sub-Breeds of the Merino: The Dickinson, 
The Standard Delaine, The National Delaine, The Im- 
proved Delaine, The Black Top, The Improved Black 
Top— The Saxony Merino— The Rambouillet Merino— 
The French Breeds— The British Breeds— Short-wools: 
The Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Suffolk, Ox- 
ford, Dorset. Long-wools: The Lincoln, Cotswold, Lei- 
cester, Romney Marsh and Wensleydale. Mountain 
Breeds : The Cheviot, Black-Faced Highland, Welsh- 
Other Varieties of Sheep : The Tunis, etc. —Hints for 
Young Shepherds. 

CHAPTER HI. 

The Science and Art of Breeding 103-126 

Breeding an Art Based on Strictly Scientific Prin- 
ciples—What Is a Breed?— Breeding by Ancient Shep- 
herds—Heredity a Special Function— Selection a Special 
Feature— Climatic Influences— Cross Breeding — Influ- 
ence of Soils on Health of Sheep. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Science and Art of Feeding 127- 200 

Feeding the Most Important Part of Agriculture- 
Character of Food and Composition of Animal— The 
Nutritive Ratio— Feeding for Lambs— Table of Nutri- 
tive Value of Foods— Rules for Winter Feeding— Feed- 
ing Crops for Sheep— Feeding Roots— Ensilage— Filling 
the Silo— Feeding Lambs— Feeding Lambs in a Corn 
Field— Rearing House Lambs— Feeding Grass Lanibs— 
Experiments in Feeding Lambs, and Possible Gain in 
a Year's Growth— Winter Feeding for Wool— Scientific 
Experiments in Feeding Lambs for Market. 

(4) 



CONTENTS. V 

CHAPTER V. 

Barns and Stables 201-225 

Best Arrangement of Buildings— Octagonal, Square 
and Round Barns— Shed for Soiling Sheep, with Floor 
Plan— Handling Sheep— A Texas Catch Pen for Sorting 
and Dipping— A Manitoba Sheep House — J. E. Wing's 
Barn— Mr. Vestal's Barn— Shepherd Dogs. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Wool: Its History, Uses, Etc 226-291 

On the Difference in Wools— Wool Growing a Science 
— The Nature of Wool — Cross Breeding for Wool — The 
Culture of Wool — Uniformity in Wool — Washing Sheep 
— Sheep Dips and Dipping — Shearing: By Machine 
and Hand— Sorting Wool— Pulled Wool— Care of the 
Sheared Sheep. 

CHAPTER Vll. 

Minor British Breeds of Sheep 292-304 

The Herdwick— The Ryeland— The New Ryeland— 
The Lonk — The Roscommon — The Radnor — The Sheep 
of North Wales — The Exmoor — The Limestone or Crag 
Sheep— The Devon Long- wool— The Dartmoor— The 
Glamorganshire Sheep — The Clun Forest Sheep. 

CHAPTER Vin. 

Diseases of Sheep : Prevention and Treatment 305-373 

Parturition of the Sheep: Retention of the After- 
Birth, Bleeding from and Inversion of the Womb, In- 
flammation of the Vagina, Garget, Abortion — Internal 
Parasites : Throat Thread Worms (Anemia) ; Tape 
Worms (Tenia Marginata, Tenia Coenurus, Tenia 
Fimbriata, Tenia Expansaj ; Stomach Round Worms 
(Strongylus Contortus) ; Intestinal Round Worms ; Nod- 
ular Disease of the Intestines (CEsophagostoma Colum- 
bianum) ; Fluke Disease ; The Sheep Bot-Fly ((Estrus 
Ovis) — Albuminaria — Anthrax — Anasarca — Bronchitis 
— Carbuncular Erysipelas —Catarrh — Colic— Diarrhea 
— Foot Rot — Impaction of the Stomach — Inflammation 
of the Brain— Inflammation of the Spinal Cord (Mye- 
letis) — Pleurisy — Inflammation of the Udder (Mammitis) 
— Inflammation of the Lungs (Pneumonia) — Inflamma- 
tion of the Skin (Hei'pes)— Parturition Fever in Ewes- 
Poisoning — Porcupine Grass — Red Water — Redness of 
the Eyes — Small Pox of Sheep— Retention of the Dung 
in Lambs — Inflammation and Castration of Testicles — 
External Parasites : The Scab, The Maggot The Louse, 
The Tick— Aphtha (Sore Mouth)— Dropsy— Epilepsy — 
Goitre — Lockjaw (Tetanus) — Stretches — Epizootic Oph- 
thalma — Toxaiine , 

The Goat v... 374-383 




o 

. a 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP: 



ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. 

It is not ouly interesting, but exceedingly useful practi- 
cally, to know as much as possible of the origin and general 
history of the domestic animals which have— during, we 
know not how many centuries— been brought under the 
dominion of mankind, and have gradually been domesticated, 
changed by this culture, and made subservient to the proht 
of the farmer and the uncountable advantage of mankind. 

There are several different races of the original wild 
sheep, and as it is certain that some of these original races 
have become the progenitors of our domestic sheep it is 
interesting to study the peculiarities of these races, and so 
learn as much as may be of the true origin of our modern 
sheep. 

This is by no means as ancient as might be supposed. 
Unlike the horse or the ox Avhose origin may be traced back 
through the early ages of the history of the world, long 
before mankind came into existence, our sheep seems to 
have been almost co-existent with the first appearance of 
man, and may quite possibly have been the survival of the 
domestication, and improvement thereby, of one of the 
original breeds of the wild sheep. 

Of these there are several, but there is no evidence in 
support of the belief that any one in particular has been so 
domesticated and changed by special breeding, except in re- 
gard to two of the ancient wild races referred to. These 
are the Argali of Southern and C-entral Asia, and the Mus- 
mon of Southern Europe. 

It is quite probable that both of these original races have 



8 THE DOMESIIC SHEEP, 

an ancient relationship to the sheep, and that the latter is 
the original parent of our European race, while the races 
at present existing in Asia have descended from the former. 
As we have to do with the sheep of Europe, it will be neces- 
sary to confine ourselves simply to this European wild sheep, 
and note its resemblance to the first domesticated breed of 
modern sheep, the Merino. 




MUSMON OF EUROPE. 

For the first record of sheep we have is of this fine 
wooled variety, which was most carefully cultivated by the 
ancient Romans Avho made the fine and Costly garments, 
even the imperial robes dyed in the costly Tyrian purple, 
of the wool of the ancient Merino of Spain, which is the 
progenitor of the Merino of the preseni: time. 



MATtfRAL ttiSTOnY 

^he illustration of the Musmon, given here, will go to 
show that this belief is well founded aud that all our modern 
breeds have descended from this first parent, which still 
exists in the islands of Crete aud Cyprus, aud the mountains 
of Greece, as well as in Corsica aud Sardinia. It formerly 
abounded in Spain, and it is from these very localities that 
the ancient inhabitants of Home procured their choicest 
fleeces. 

It is also on record by some of the ancient Roman writers, 
and by that ancient naturalist Pliny, that the Musmon was 
used to cross on the ancient sheep, bred by the Romans for 
the sake of its fleece, and that the produce of the cross was 
fertile. But however it may have boon, this we know on 




ARGALI OF ASIA. 

the authority of the most ancient records, that of the history 
of mankind given in the Scriptures, viz: that while the first 
man, or we may think the first disitinct race of men, were 
cultivators of the ground, the second were keepers of sheep. 
In fact the sheep unquestionably was the first domesticated 
animal, and not so much for its flesh, although we soon find 
that this was a cho-ice article of food, but for its fleece. In 
fact we find in the most ancient remains of the earliest 
human races, that wool was used for clothing, first by the 
use of the skins of the sheep, and in time that it was spun 
and woven into cloth. And during all the earliest history of 
mankind to the present, we find that the sheep has been 
accounted, at least, an equal part of the wealth of mankind 
with all other animals or possessions. Moreover we are 
forced to conclude, as the result of a study of history, that 
the ancient shepherds who were wanderers, alternately in- 



10 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

habitmg the mountains and the plains, following their flocks 
wherever they strayed, and taking possession of the best 
lauds they met with by force of their numbers and good 
fighting qualities, derived doubtless from their early youth- 
ful combats with the savage beasts of prey from whose 
attacks they successfully protected their flocks. And the 
Merino has been, and still is, from that long bygone time, 
a. wandering sheep; thriving by change of pasture, if only 
from one small field to another; for this change, slight as it 
is, seems to satisfy its desire for fresh fields and pastures 
new. 

At that early age the flock supplied the owners with food 
and raiment, and nothing more was wanted to fully fill 
all the needs of the early races of mankind. Thus the first 
uien became shepherds, by the mere force of circumstances; 
and it is interesting to note that our own shepherds of the 
West are following in the footsteps of the ancient patriarchs, 
and still perpetuating the habits and industries of the ear- 
liest people of the human race. And if this is so it seems 
to be an unavoidable result of the necessary relation of the 
sheep to the human race, that the flock, under whatever 
conditions both may exist, must always be a profitable pos- 
session of mankind, in spite of all the mistakes made by 
politicians and political economists, and under whatever 
changes in our civilization may occur in the dim future. And 
that old saying of one of the oldest writers on practical farm 
economy, quoted at the title page, will remain true, as an en- 
couragement for the shepherd, as long as the human race 
may survive. 

While it might be interesting to follow out this subject 
of the natural history of the sheep, and give some account 
of the many varieties now existing, we propose to confine 
Ihls weak to its practical purpose entirely, leaving those 
who maj feel interested beyond this limit to study the sub- 
ject in the works of the special naturalists. 

But it is worthy of note to the intelligent shepherd, as 
closely related to his industry and the improvement of his 
flocks, that all the different breeds of sheep now existing 
must have sprung from this single source, and have been 
produced by the art of the breeders Avho have given their 
attention to the improvement of the natural flock. This im- 



Natural history. 11 

iu'cvemeiit, however, is by uo means a uioderii thing. It was 
in full progress at the time of the patriarch Jacob, who by a 
trick, as it may be termed, wortliy of the most exi>erience(l 
breeder of modern times, got from his father-in-law the best 
of the lambs for his share of the Hocks which he tended 
under a sort of contract, quite common uow-a-days, that is, 
for a share of the produce. How long before that ancient 
time the modern rules of breeding w^ere then in practice wo 
have no means of knowing, but it may be well believed that 
this art of improvement had been long in vogue, and was 
the basis of the high condition of the flocks at that time. 

The high condition of intelligence among the leaders of 
society even in the days of Moses, and the consideration 
given to the flocks as property, together with the large num- 
bers of sheep owned by noted individuals as a mere matter 
of course, all goes to show that the art of tlie shepherd was 
even in those early times very highly cultivated and most 
highly considered. In fact, as the sheep was one of the 
inost important sources of wealth, we may be sure the flocks 
were cultivated as carefully as the high degree of intelli- 
gence then would lead us to think. And this common knowl- 
edge of course became a matter of history, repeated and 
handed down by the ancient writers for even our informa- 
tion. 

And the arts of improving sheep by the best breeding, as 
then practiced, may be taken as a guide for us at this time. 
Here is what Virgd— that accomplished Eoman farmer and 
breeder— says in the third book of his Georgics: "There will 
be always those in every flock whose forms you will wish 
to change, therefore always repair them, and choose out 
from the flock the best offspring yearly. Then after the 
birth, the care is transferred to the lambs, and they brand 
them with the marks and the names of the race, which they 
may wish toikeep for breed for preserving the flock. And if wool 
be your care, select white flocks, with soft fleeces. And if, 
although the ram himself be white, reject him which has a 
black tongue under his moist palate; lest he may stain the 
fleeces of the lambs with black spots, and look about for 
another in the full field." 

Nor were the ancient shepherds at all behind the most 
enthusiastic of the modem ones in paying enormous 



1^ 



THfi DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



prices for the desired animals chosen for the improvement 
of their sheep. For a shepherd of the time of the Roman 
Caesrar Tiberius is recorded as giving a sum equivalent to 
five hundred dollars for a ram of a noted breed, chosen from 
one ot the most noted flocks in the world at that time. 

And in more modern times we find that the kings and 
emperurs thought a present of a fine ram and a bunch of 




AFRICAN SHEEP. 

ewes from their high bred flocks, a worthy present to be 
made or received. It was in this way that some of the first 
of the Cotswold breed were brought into England as a gift 
from the Spanish emperor to the English king several cen- 
turies ago. Indeed we may thank the kings of England 
very cordially foT their enterprise in cultivating the breeding 
sheep from the finest, by procuring the specimens from every 
possible source, and. by the strictest laws protecting the 
native flocks from deterioration. 

Moreover we may take a hint and lesson from this period 
of the history of the British sheep. For not only were the 
sheep protected in the strictest manner, but so was the trade 
in wool. Every art of the economist was invoked for the 
protection of the woolen manufacture in England. It 
was a felony, punishable by death, to export a sheep, and 
the introduction of foreign woolen goods was entirely for- 
bidden. At the same time every skilled artisan who was 



ANATOMY. 13 

expert in manufacturing woolen goods found a cordial wel- 
come in England. In addition to the severest and most 
strictly euforced laws for the protection of the wool product 
and manufacture, the immigration of foreign experts in the 
woolen manufacture was encouraged until at last, after cen- 
turies of such protective culture, England mono^polized the 
woolen manufacturing business, of tlie world. It is one of 
the sad examples of unwise liberality on the part of 
some of our statesmen that these lessons, taken from such 
a conspicuous example of history, should be disregarded and 
—as most truly said by the ancient writer quoted on the 
Title page— "the most profitable animal a man can have" 
should be sacrificed to the mistalcen policy of admitting 
free of import duty the products of countries whose trade 
has been built up and brought to a full growth by the most 
severely protective laws known in the liistory of the world. 
Surely it would seem that we should follow this most strik- 
ing example of the building up of trade to a condition of self- 
support by centuries of favorable legislative protection. This 
is a matter the American shepherd should study well for his 
guidance. 

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP. 

None of our domestic animals can be managed success- 
fully without an accurate knowledge of its anatomy, and of 
the special functions of its parts. The anatomy or physical 
structure of any animal controls its constitution, that is to 
say, its subjection to good or evil results in its living and 
general management; for while this w^ord in its full sense 
means the formation and general disposition of any organ- 
ized thing, in the common sense, as applied to animals, it 
means as well the principles or general laws by which its 
successful existence is secured; its susceptibility to good or 
evil by the conditions of its existence or management; its 
ability to resist misfortunes, and its prosperity under the 
skillful management of its intelligent keeper. The constitu- 
tion of the domestic sheep in this regard is especially one to 
be well studied by the shepherd, for the due preservation 
against these accidents and common occurrences by which 
it suffers in a greater degree than any other of our domestic 
animals. 

The sheep belongs to that large family of quadrupeds 



14 ■ THE DOMESTCC SHEEP. 

known as the Ruminantia, for the reason that they are all 
rarainatmg animals, having four stomachs, cloven hoofs, and 
incisors only on the lower jaw, the teeth in the upper jaw 
being wanting, and replaced by a hard, tough pad against 
which the lower teeth impinge when the animal is pasturing, 
thus severing the herbage. 

Its family is known as Ovis, and is peculiar on account 
of having no tear pits, but instead a number of small fol- 
licles or bags from which is secreted an oily matter by 
which the movements of the eye in its socket and also of the 
eyelids are facilitated. 

The organs of nutrition are the most important part 
of the structure of this animal. They consist first of: 

The mouth and teeth. The mouth extends from the lips 
to the gullet, which is the entrance to the alimentary canal. 
The sheep, like the ox, has a set of deciduous or milk teeth, 
which in course of time are shed and replaced by a new 
and permanent set. It has no canine teeth, otherwise known 
as dog teeth. There is a considerable space. of the jaw that 
is destitute of teeth, tiiat is, betw^een the front or incisor 
teeth and the molars or grinders. There are thirty-two teeth 
in all, the same number as in the ox tribe. In the lower jaw 
there are eight incisors or cutting teeth. It is curious that 
this is the precise number existing in mankind, but the 
whole number is placed on the lower jaw of the sheep, and 
in man they are divided between the upper and lower jaws. 
The sheep has twenty-four grinders or back teeth, w^hich is 
foar more than mankind possess; but the whole number of 
teeth in the sheep is the same as in man. 

The number and condition of the sheep's teeth are an 
easy indication of its age. There are twenty deciduous 
teetli, the first of which appear before or soon after birth. 
These consist of the two central incisors, and three of the 
molars or double teeth. The whole of the incisors appear at 
the age of two or three weeks. The first molars appear be- 
fore or soon after birth, three on each side. The last two 
incisors, one on each side, appear at six to nine months 
after birth. This completes the set of front teeth. The com- 
plete set of molars do not appear until the sheep is in its 
fifth year, when the last one appears. The following table 
will be a guide to the process of dentition. 



ANATOMY. 



15 




The figures here given show the appearance of the mid- 
dle pair of the front teeth at the age of IV2 years, at which 
age the English courts have decided that the lamb becomes 
a sheep. 

TABLE OF DENTITION OF THE SHEEP. 

ERUPTION. REPLACEMENT. 

FRONT TEETH OR INCISORS. 

Before or soon after birth I'/a years 

The same ~|4 .» 

14 days 314 ^^ 

2 to 3 weeks ^/z 

MOLAR OR DOUBLE TEETH. 

Before or a few days after birth V/z ^^ 

The same ^Yf .. 

The same : '^/z 

6 to 9 months. 21/2 years. 4 to o years. 

After the fifth year a sheep is 
known as to its age by the full .^^mmy^ 

mouth, and as the age Increases by 
the wearing of the teeth. But this ^ 
is not altogether a sure guide, for ^ 
a flock pasturing on a poor pasture | 
or sandy soil will so quickly wear ^^^ef^^ 

down its cutting teeth that they will 
appear to be so blunt as to indicate 
a much greater age. This is to be 
taken into account, and the general x g 

appearance, as will be described ^ ^ 

hereafter, in other respects must all a ^ 

be taken into account. This, how- h 

ever, is not of much account prac- ^ 

tically, for except it be some favor- "^ 

ite and prolific ewe, it is rarely that g wsm& ^^mtUA 

a sheep is kept so long that its age ^ .._. 

is any reason for despising it. It is x °^ 

well, however, that the shepherd ^ » 

and especially purchasers of sheep • ^ 

should be able to ascertain the age 

up to the point of maturity. The 

author has kept some ewes until the 

age of thirteen years, having twins ^ 

every year after the second, and ^ 

never found any indication of in- S 

ability to feed as well as a young 

sheep. What the full age of a 






Ig THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

sheep may be has never been accurately determined by any 
authoritative evidence, but it is very probable that if well 
cared for a sheep may be kept with profit until twenty years 
old, and the mutton even then may be as tender and good or 
better than a four year old sheep that has been ill cared for. 

The lips of the sheep are so peculiar as to deserve men- 
tion. They are extremely mobile, thin, and talie an active 
part in the gathering of the food. The upper lip does not 
«how any muffle, which is the broad patch seen in the ox, 
and which is furnished with active excretory apparatu.s, 
seen at times by the conspicuous drops of perspiration ex- 
uded by it in warm weather. This is absent in the sheep, 
and the upper lip is thin and divided by a fissure so that 
each half of the lip may be moved independently of the 
other. 

The teeth are really a part of the digestive system as 
they grind the food along Avith the secretion of the glands 
of the mouth, and which are known as the salivary glands. 
These are placed within the lips, under the tongue, and along 
the jaws. They secrete apeculiar fluid which has the effect 
of changing the starch of the food into sugar, as well as 
aiding in the digestion of it in the stomach. In all the rumi- 
nants these glands are large and exude a copious amount 
of saliva, especially during the act of rumination, by which 
the food, having been coarsely ground at the first, is 
macerated in the first stomach and then regurgitated to the 
mouth where it is further ground at pleasure and then 
passes on to the second and third stomachs where it is again 
ground and macerated between the folds of the manyplies, 
after which it goes to the true digestive stomach, the fourth 
compartment, and having been digested there it is finally 
disposed of in the intestines. 

THE SHEEP'S STOMACH. 

The changes which the food of all the ruminating ani- 
mals undergoes are mostly all accomplished after it has 
been swallowed, and has been subjected to the action of the 
first and second stomachs. After this preparation the food 
is formed by a peculiar moulding apparatus into long pellets, 
which are forced back into the mouth and are there sub- 
jected to the solvent influence of the saliva, copiously se- 



ANATOMY. 



17 



ereted by the glands of the mouth. This is the act of rumi- 
nation. It is during this process that the saliva is mostly 
secreted, for very little of it is concerned in the first chewing 
of the food. But the flow of it during mastication in the 
ruminating process is very copious, and so much so as to 
form with the finely ground food a mere semi-liquid, thus 
aiding in the solution of the nutritive matter contained in 
the food. It has been thought that this curious process 
has been designed especially for this class of animals, in- 
olfensive, mild and meek and unarmed, and seemingly in- 
tended by nature as food for the ravenous, carnivorous, 
blood-thirsty beasts of prey. It has thus been provided with 
some means of escaping extermination, by its habits of 




Fig. 2. 



THE SHEEP'S STOMACH. 

a. -Gullet; &.-Rumen; c.-Reticulum; d.-Omasum; «.-Abomasum; 
/.-Duodenum. Fig. 2 shows the interior of the stomach. 



secretiveness, feeding at night, or at short intervals during 
the days, in which it is able to swallow its hastily gathered 
food, and retiring to its coverts there at leisure and in safety 
completing its process of remastication and performing the 
needed functions of nutrition, 

A correct knowledge of the stomach is therefore not 
only interesting to the shepherd, but useful in the manage- 
ment of a flock. For it is the case that most of the mishaps 
and ordinary diseases of the sheep are originated in the 
digestive processes, which not being duly performed lead to 
a general disturbance of the system, by which a majority of 
the ailments of the sheep are caused. 

Taking a general view of this organ we find jt to be 



18 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

a capacious sack to which are attached minor compart- 
ments lying between it and the duodenum or first part of the 
bowels, three in number, thus making a quadruple bag, as 
it were, through the parts of which the food passes, and in 
each of which a distinct process of digestion is performed. 
The food passing clown the gullet (a) from the mouth, enters 
the rumen or paunch (b) w^here it remains for a time until, 
at leisure, it is forced back to the mouth by a peculiar move- 
ment of the gullet. This is composed of rings surrounded 
by an elastic membrane, and which are very easily dilated 
to a co'nsiderable extent. The gullet, also called the esopha- 
gus, passes through the entrance of the rumen where it is 
connected with the second compartment as well as with the 
third, by a canal, or gutter, known as the esophageal canal. 
This connects with the rumen by a slit or opening which 
IS closed except Avhen it is pressed open by the force of the 
passing food, or by some function of its connective parts. 
This opening is easily forced, doubtless by the will of the 
animal, and as the canal is filled with the contents of the 
rumen it closes, holding a cud or mass of the food; this 
then is forced to the mouth by a successive contraction of 
the elastic rings, in precisely the same manner, but in a con- 
trary direction to that by which the food is first swallowed. 
The cud then being remasticated and diluted copiously with 
the saliva, is again SAvallowed; and by reason of its soft and 
semi-liquid consistency it passes over this opening in the 
groove and goes Into the third compartment, passing the 
orifice of the second stomach on its way. The second 
stomach is called the reticulum or honeycomb. 

The third stomach is called the omasum, commonly the 
manyplies, on account of the large number of leaves lining- 
it. These leaves with their attachments to the walls of the 
omasum are shown at figure 2. The food is ground and 
macerated between these leaves until it becomes sufficiently 
disintegrated to be acted upon by the gastric juice of the 
fourth stomach, known as the abomasum, which is the true 
digestive organ. 

To repeat concisely this function of the stomach, we may 
say that the rumen is a sac in which the food taken during 
the sliort and rapid feeding time is kept in reserve, and 
whence it is carried back to the mouth for the process of 



ANATOMY. 19 

rumination, after having been more or less softened by the 
warmth and moisture of the rumen. 

The second stomach, the reticulum, participates in the 
functions of the rumen to which it is mostly a convenient 
appendage. But it always contains a large quantity of liquid 
and doubtless plays the part of a reservoir much as in the 
camel, well known to carry a considerable extra store of 
water for immediate use as it may be required. 

The esophageal canal carries into the third stomach or 
omasum, past the opening of the reticulum, the matter 
swallowed after rumination, or even any finely ground or 
soft semi-liquid food swallowed the first time, and which 
lias not solidity and consistence suflicient to force open the 
slit or opening in the canal. 

The omasum completes the final disintegration of the 
food by a process of rubbing or trituration between its 
leaves. 

The abomasum is a true stomach, in which the gastric 
juice is secreted, and w^hich finally dissolves the nutrimea- 
tary substance of the food, and renders it fit for the absorp- 
tion of it by the villi of the intestines. . 

THE INTESTINES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 

The intestines is a long tube doubled upon itself a great 
many times, through which the digested food passes and 
gives up its nutritive matter to be absorbed and earned into 
the blood. The internal coat of this folded tube is covered 
by a multitude of minute absorbent vessels called the villi. 
It is a netw^ork of blood vessels and so-called lacteals, re- 
sembling the close pile of velvet. 

The villi absorb the nutritious matter of the now com- 
pletely digested food and pass it on, as it were, to the great 
portal vein by which the dissolved aliment of the animal, 
fitted by complete digestion for the enrichment of the blood, 
is carried to the heart, and enters the right ventricle, from 
which it is passed on to the lungs where it is brought into 
contact with the air breathed by the animal, absorbing oxy- 
gen from it, and then becoming perfect blood. The blood 
then, after this exposure to the oxygen of the air, is forced 
into the left ventricle, and from this forced by the con- 
traction of the enormously strong muscular action of the 



20 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



heart through the arteries by whicli it is poured iuto the 
system of cax)illaries. These pervade every part of the 
body, iuterually and externally, and are so closely distrib- 
uted that no part of the system can be punctured by the 




THE INTESTINES AND MESENTARY. 

1. The duodenum. 2. The jejunum. 3. The ileum. 

4. The coecum, being: the anterior proloneation of the colon, or 
first large intestine. The ileum opens into this (on the back side as 
presented in the cut), about 12 Inches from its extremity, the opening 
defended by a valve. 

5. The large anterior portion of the colon, retaining its size, 
(about three times that of the smaller intestines) for about two feet. 

6.6. The colon tending toward the center. 

7.7. The returning convolutions of the colon. 

8. The rectum or straight gut, communicating with the anus. 
9.9. The mesentary, or that portion of the peritoneum which re- 
tains the intestines in their places. 

10. The portion of the mesentary supporting the colon, &c. 
The united length of these intestines is upward of sixty feet. 



ANATOMY. SI 

finest ueedle without \Youuding some of them. From these 
the blood haviug performed its fimction goes back to the 
lungs where it is purified by the action of the air breathed 
and then to the heart to be again circulated. 

This brief descripticii of the nutrition of an animal goes 
to show the amazing delicacy of the vital processes, and 
considering that the liver, the pancreas, and the spleen, are 
all charged with accessory functions in this system of nutri- 
tion, it is no matter for surprise that in the alimentation 
of an animal we have one of the most profoundly delicate 
series of operations, the safe performance of which is one 
of the greatest wonders of nature. And yet it goes on oper- 
ating constantly— as the pulse of an animal beats— forty- 
eight times in a minute, every beat carrying to the center 
of life a sufficient supply of aliment by Avhich the whole sys- 
tem is supported, and renewed in fact, completely in time, 
by this addition to the system of an adequate quantity and 
kind of nutriment. 

This brief but wholly inadequate review of the method 
by which food is made to support life goes, however, to show 
what care, attention, and good judgment are necessary for 
the welfare of a flock, too often fed without thought of the 
dielicacy of the vital organs; and the importance of keeping 
these in a healthful working condition is that the first qualifi- 
cation needed to insure the successful management of a flock 
is a due acquaintance with the vital functions of a sheep 
and a most careful study of the methods required to main- 
tain health by a rigid adherence to the safe and healthful 
alimentation of it. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE VARIETIES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

Such a course of culture as has been described, of course, 
could not fail to establish in time a large number of varie- 
ties of sheep. Individual tastes and preferences; the varied 
practice of individuals; nianj- men being of many minds; 
differences of climate, of pasture, of soils even, and other 
environments, it may be sure must necessarily lead to the 
growth of distinct varieties of sheep. This happened some 
centuries ago, and even then the germs of the present exist- 
ing breeds became differentiated as local varieties, best 
adapted to the conditions in which they were bred, fed, and 
reared. For we must take notice that these three elements 
of variation in sheep are profoundly effective in fixing types 
on the animals concerned. We may talie the English breeds 
as the leading example of this principle, as to numbers of in- 
stances, while the American Merino and that of the French, 
the Spanish and the Saxony sheep of this class, not being 
missed, but taken as included in our own bright example 
of successful breeding, the American Merino. Doubtless we 
may not easily think too highly of the Spanish Merino from 
which our native breed was first originated, for this breed 
may be said, as was said by the great Napoleon of the pyra- 
mids of Egypt, "forty centuries look down" upon us, when 
we consider the Merino of Spain. But as that unfortunate 
nation has gone down in the scale of history, after a glorious 
past, which we can never forget, so the Spanish Merino 
sheep, greatly useful in its time, has gone out of history, 
which has swiftly passed on before it and left it to be for- 
gotten as the present factor in the study of the modern 
sheep. 

THE AMERICAN MERINO. 

Let us begin onr classification with this remarkable 
example of American enterprise and skillful culture, and 
the effect of its environments upon this susceptible animal. 




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«J4 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

I't was 'in the year 1801, but little now sliort of a cen- 
tury, that Mr. DeLessert, a French banlier, owning a farm 
near Kingston in the State of New Yorli, imported a single 
sheep, one of four shipped from Spain, ihree of which died 
on the passage. Mr. Seth Adams of Massachusetts the same 
year with better fortune imported a pair from France, and 
probably of pure Spanish extraction and blood, as the French 
Merino specially was not then in existence, but about to be- 
come so only as a special product of pure Spanish blood 
under French culture. The next year two pairs were sent 
from France by Mr. Livingston, our Minister to that coun- 
try, to his estate on the Hudson river in New York. The 
most important importation, however, was made in this same 
year by Mr. Humphreys, our Minister to Spain, who brought 
home with him two hundred. Seven years later our Minister 
to Portugal, Mr. Wm. Jarvis of Vermont, sent home large 
flocks, and still more in the two years after. All these sheep 
were procured under the most favorable circumstances, and 
were the best specimens of the best flocks that could be 
selected. 

After these other shipments were made but none of 
importance. These sheep, soon naturalized, throve exceed- 
ingly, the produce soon greatly exceeded the original flocks 
In product of wool and general stamina of constitution, and 
there are several flocks now existing in the United States in 
which the pure blood, unmixed by any other, still flows. 

The number of sheep thus imported amounted to 3,850 
head and were made up of the finest of the Spanish flocks 
that were confiscated by the Spanish Government, as one of 
the penalties of political offences by four leading Spanish 
noblemen. There could not have been any more favorable 
opportunity of thus practically transferring the best blood 
of the Spanish fiocks to a new country and location; and 
this turned out to be by virtue of the favorable soil and cli- 
mate, as well as of the energy and enterprise of the New 
England and New York breeders; and thus the successful 
transplanting of the flocks of Spain was accomplished. 
The foundation of the best breed of Merinos in the world 
was thus laid on the most favorable soil, and has been built 
upon by the native skill and aptitude of the American shep- 
herds still further with most satisfactory results. 



26 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

There need be no surprise at the result, which has been 
that our American Merino is the best sheep of its class in 
the world, and that our breeders have the whole world at 
their feet, offering the highest prices for our rams for the 
improvement and support of foreign flocks. It has been a 
marked example of the fitness of our soils and climate and 
of our fertile pastures for the special industry of the shep- 
herd. 
/ A combination of circumstances, however, soon oiccurred 

/ to bring on a disastrous speculation, by which, first, the 
/ prices of wool advancing on account of the Avar of 1812, led to 
an equivalent advance in the value of tliese sheep. Wool 
sold for $2.50 a pound, and sheep brought a thousand dollars 
for ewes, and fifteen hundred for rams. As soon as the war 
ended, in 1815, of course the sustaining prop to this specula - 
\ tion gave way, and sheep that had been purchased at these 
high prices were unsalable at one dollar a head. This is 
only one instance of the many that have occurred of the 
injury done to the most intrinsically valuable interests by 
senseless speculation, in which the cursed thirst for wealth 
leads men to lose their heads, and not only to ruin them- 
selves but overwhelm the most valuable and important busi- 
ness interests in. temporary disaster. This is especially true 
of the sheep, which has been all through its civilized history 
a sort of foot ball for politicans, sometimes protected unduly, 
when it becomes an object for the frantic antics of the spec- 
ulator; then after a time of excessive inflation a collapse 
comes by reason of its abandonment to the competition of 
the rest of the world, in Avhich it is sacrificed with as sense- 
less want of judgment, as in the previous instance of its 
undue speculative inflation. The history of the Merino is a 
most conspicuous instance of this unwise and wholly de- 
structive course of public policy. It would seem to be the 
wise part to either leave the sheep alone to work out their 
own destiny in competition with the world, or to adopt such 
a wise policy as would ensure due protection to this impor- 
tant source of wealth, and at the same time produce an ade- 
quate revenue for the government from imports of wool 
and woolens, and adhere to this for a term of twenty-five 
or forty years, during which this great interest might have 
become so firmly fixed and established, that if it were 



AMERICAN MERINO 27 

thought desirable it might gradually be left to support itself. 
This has been the course of the British Government, whose 
policy heretofore has been the strictest protection of native 
industries, not only by tariffs but by the severest laws, even 
so far as capital punishment, for transgressors of these 
laws. For it is only recently that the English statutes, by 
which hanging was made the penalty for stealing a sueep, 
and equally severe penalties were inflicted upon those who 
violated the statutes made forbidding importations or ex- 
portation of tlie products of the flocks, were modified or re- 
pealed. And to show the high consideration in which this 
interest of the shepherd was held, the seat of the highest 
judicial functionary in England was a woolsack, and even 
at the present time the seat of the Lord Chancellor of Great 
Britain is called the woolsack. This is only one of the 
methods by Avhich the British Empire has attained its vast 
power, and its citizens their enormous wealth, by which 
their government dominates the world, and the British 
flag floats over every prominent location for a fortress s; and 
as the earth turns in its daily course the sun shines con- 
tinuously on it somewhere. Truly, in the infancy of what 
is in time to be — if only true wisdom is its guide — the greatest 
civilized nation on the face of the earth, the American peo- 
ple, should not cast aside the universal experience of the past 
during which every great empire has laid the foundation 
for its wealth and consequent power by a due policy of pro- 
tection of its own interests. 

The result of the best breeding of this race of sheep has 
been marked by a continuous improvement. The weight of 
the carcass has been increased twenty-five per cent. Its 
form has been improved in that way by which the yield of 
the fleece has been doubled; the legs have been shortened 
and the back broadened at least one-third, the wool pro- 
ducing surface thus- being increased, while the density of 
the wool on the skin is greater. As a wool-bearer this breed 
has been greatly improved, while the mutton has been made 
more marketable. And as a sire for market larcjbs the Ameri- 
can Merino, crossed on the Southdown or Shix)pshlre ewe, 
has been found to excel all others. 



^8 *Hii D0Mi2STIC SHEfil*. 

POINTS OF EXCELLENCE IN A MERINO. 

The American Merino should have a round, well filled up 
carcass. Evenly proportioned as to length with the plump, 
round barrel, and deep chest and flanks. The back is 
straight and broad; the neck is short and deep; the head 
short and broad on the forehead. The legs are short, widely 
placed, strong, with a full forearm and twist. The skin is 
of a clear pink in color, mellow to the touch and loosely 
held on the body. Paleness of the skin is an indication of 
a weak constitution, impurity of blood, or ill health. When 
the wool is opened the skin under it should be clear, bright, 
clean, and wholly free from scurfiness. The wrinkles and 
folds in it are mostly a matter of taste, they add but little to 
the value of the fleece; and the present fashion, and one to 
be admired, is to lessen them as much as possible. For the 
some-time fashionable deep folds on the neck add nothing 
to the real value of the rams, unless it may be for the pur- 
pose of improving the lighter bodied native races or the poor 
Mexican eAves. 

The Merino being a wool sheep before anything else, 
its fleece is the principal point of excellence. This should 
be close and compact on the skin, having sufficient yolk to 
preserve the soft texture, and grease enough to protect it 
from the rains. The close top of a Merino fleece is therefore 
a protection to the sheep against the weather, and in choos- 
ing breeding animals this is a point to be considered in tlie 
rams. 

As a special wool grower the Merino should have its 
body as completely covered by the fleece as possible. Thus 
the whole sheep is enveloped in the fleece down to the feet, 
and the face is covered except the eyes. T!be absence of hair 
in the fleece is a chief point in this regard. The curl of the 
wool and a wavy appearance of it on opening the fleece is a 
point to be regarded with favor. So is the softness and 
elasticity of the fleece. There should not be tod much yolk 
in it; this is a waste so far as there may be an excess over 
and above the natural quantity required to prevent matting 
of the fleece, and to give it its due protective character for 
the comfort and health of the animal. 

The eye of a sheep is to be studied as one of the points 
by which its condition of health is to be ascertained. A 



SUB-BREEDS OF THE MERINO. 29 

bright active eye, clear and free from all tinge of yellow, 
is an indication of good constitution and health. Any tinge 
of yellowness is a fault not sufficiently takeu note of in judg- 
ing sheep, for unless the sheep is healthy and sound in every 
way, whatever excellencies it may possess in other respects 
are still worthless to the breeder, if the healthful and sound 
constitution is wanting. 

SUB-BREEDS OF THE MERINO. 

As might be expected, and as has liappeued with cattle, 
there will always arise in the breeding of a\iiy distinct class 
of sheep, by virtue of the variation due to the different sys- 
tems, methods, and environments, followed by breeders, 
some more or less distinct families which have all the 
special characteristics of the breed, but differ in some 
special points. The Short-horn breed of cattle— for instance- 
when in the hands of those two reuowed breeders, Mr. Bates 
and Mr. Booth, soon became differentiated so much as to 
foi-m two distinct families, known as the Bates and the 
Booth Short-horns. Each of these still possessed the dis- 
tinct qualifications of the main breed, but varied as to some 
special points. Thus one became the best beef animals and 
the other, with this qualification, possessed excellent dairy 
qualities. Each breeder it seems, and indeed of necessity, 
gave a sort of personality to his own stock, and this was 
maintained by those other breeders who strove to preserve, 
by similar culture and infusions of new blood of each class, 
this distinctive difference in minor points, and so infused 
this personality as may be said into each sub-breed. 

This has occurred, as might have been expected, and 
indeed of necessity, with our Merino sheep. And thus it is 
that we have some distinct classes or sub-breeds of the 
Merino, just as have been produced in the case of the 
Saxony, the Silesia, the Rambouillet, and the American 
Merino. These do not necessarily enter into competition 
with the special INIerino, but fill that place which will always 
exist among sheep breeders, and among the sheep farmers 
as well, which will always be open, and is due to individual 
preferences. It is well that this is so, for it tends to the 
maintenance of such a competition among these classes, 
or sub-breeds, as must give rise to the best efforts of all con- 



30 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

cerned to maintam the excelleDce and superiority of the 
main class of which these may be considered subordinate; 
and each of which may possess some special peculiarity 
which renders it more satisfactory to the public generally. 
Thus w^e have the so-called Dickinson Polled Merinos, the 
Standard Delaine Merinos, and the Black-Top Merinos. 

THE DICKINSON MERINO. 

This breed originated in Ohio, by the successful efforts 
of Mr. William K. Dickinson of Stubenville. It sprang from 
the Humphrey importation, some of which were purchased 
by Mr. Botch of Connecticut who moved to Massilon in Ohio, 
and carried with him a selected flock of these sheep. This 
was about eighty years ago. Through some unfortunate 
financial reverses the flock in part came into the possession 
of Mr. Dickinson, through whom they in time passed into 
the hands of Mr. James McDowell, who had been the shep- 
herd of Mr. Dickinson for many years. 

This flock was then the only pure bred descendants of 
the original flock, selected at first from the importation of 
Mr. Humphrey's. Since 1831 these sheep have been in the 
hands of Mr. McDowell who has bred them with absolute 
purity, and with such success that at the present time they 
are scattered in the hands of over one hundred breeders, 
who have formed an association in whose records there are 
now six thousand pedigrees, tracing directly to the original 
stock. 

This breed produces a beautifully-fine standard delaine 
wool, from four to five inches long, with a soft and glossy 
fiber, clean and well crimped. Tlie breed is hornless and 
makes an excellent mutton sheep. It has good size, the 
rams w^eighing from 200 lbs. in ordinary condition, and up 
to 300 wh0n fat and full fieshed. The ewes in good breed- 
ing condition w^eigh 150 lbs. and a finished wether 200 lbs. 
The fleece in the grease weighs, for rams, from 20 up to 
40 ibs. and for ewes 15 to 25 lbs. This sheep has been bred 
distinctly for its carcass of fine mutton, as much as for its 
excellent fleece. 

THE STANDARD DELAINE. 

This breed originated through the desire of a number of 
breeders of the Delaine variety of the Merino, to improve 



32 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



the existing sheep, so as to produce an excellent mutton 
animal with an improved fleece. A smooth bodied animal 
was desired, well covered with a good fleece of long stapled 
fine wool, and having a broad back and deep quarters. The 
best milliing quality was one of the main objects as well as 
to get rid of the deeply wrinkled body. This desire led to 
the formation of The Standard Delaine Spanish-Merino As- 
sociation, in great part due to the efforts of Mr. S. M. 
Cleaver of Washington County, Pa., a locality noted for its 
fine sheep and intelligent and enterprising flock owmers, for 
many years past. A scale of points was established in which 
prominence is given to the fleece, its quantity and quality, 
length and strength of staple; and equally to the size and 
form of carcass, the mutton qualities of which are estimated 
by the deep and rounded quarters, the broad straight back, 
and the weight of the rams at not less than 150 lbs. and of 
the ewes not less than 100. 

These standards are now considerably surpassed, in fact, 
as the rams weigh 170 to 200 lbs., and the ewes 120 to 150. 
This sheep matures early and fattens easily. 




DOM PEDRO. 
Imported from Prance by M. Desselert, 1801, 



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34 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

THE NATIONAL DELAINE. 

This is another sub-breed of this class) which originated 
in Washington CouLcy, Pa., in 18S0, mainly through the 
efforts and inliucjice of Mr. J. C. McNary. This locality has 
a past history in regard to its sheep and its skillful breeders, 
common with Vermont, and the outgrowth of it has beefti a 
somewhat special class of Merino sheep known as the Wash- 
ington County Merino. Nearly thirty years ago rams Avere 
brought from Vermont and crossed on the sheep then known 
as the native Merino. This crossing resulted in the form of 
sheep now known as the American or National Delaine, a 
sheep with a long fleece tit for combing, and yet retaining its 
peculiar fineness and stremgth of fiber, and as well having a 
larger carcass than the original Merino with far better 
mutton character. That these different varieties should be 
formed in the limit of a single county speaks strongly as 
to the skill and intelligence of the sheep breeders, of whom, 
those organized in the various parts of the county, each 
formed in their minds what kind of sheep they wanted 
to meet the demands of the butchers and the wool mamu- 
facturers together; and going to work made each kind of 
sheep they desired. No more evidence of the intelligence of 
these breeders can be afforded than these useful sheep to 
which their ideas have given form in these local sub-breeds. 
They have satisfied every need of the shepherd; a fine heavy 
fleeced sheep for the wool manufacturer and a well bodied 
one for the butcher. 

These examples testify to the correctness of the views of 
the author expressed in the chapter on breeding, by wliich 
he shows that variation in breeding is the expression of a 
personal idea of fltness and value, and that locality, with 
varying conditions, must necessarily lead to variations in 
type, just as these instances of these sub-breeds formed by 
individual instincts, as might be said of the intelligent 
breeders, and the personality of each breeder, is expressed 
in his favorite type of animal. That the association of these 
intelligent breeders to form scales of points and permanent 
distinguishing types of sheep have been duly formed, and 
are now in action, is the only means possible of preserving 
these types permanently; and while each one can scarcely 
be called a distinct breed, the outgrowth of these if well 






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36 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

cultivated must in time eventuate in permanently estab- 
lished breeds, gradually formiing distinct characters, and as 
valuable as the good sense and business skill of those in- 
terested may make possible. 

. THE IMPROVED DELAINE MERINO. 

The Improved Delaine Merino is another branch of the 
Delaine family. In 1890, a registry association was formed 
in Central Ohio, including the flocks of Messrs. Henry, Long, 
Hagenbuck, Bailey, Silvens, TurnbuU, Horn, Crittenden, 
Newcomer, Swain, Braden and others, the object of the or- 
ganization being the preservation of purity in the De- 
laine Merino and the encouragement of further development 
in the production of a mutton sheep of large size, strong- 
constitution and compact symmetrical form, with a heavy 
fleece of fine Delaine wool. No sheep with other than pure 
Delaine blood are permitted to enter the register. 

The weight of a mature ewe of this breed should run 
from 100 to 120 pounds and her fleece from 9 to 14 pounds of 
long, white, well crimped and fine delaine staple, showing 
a free flo^' of white oil. The mature ram in full fleece 
should weigh from 160 to 210 pounds, averaging about 175 
or 180 pounds. 

The association has grown rapidly and now embraces a 
good number of well known flO'Cks scattered throughout the 
states and territories, the principal flock centers being Belle- 
fontaine, Urbana and Cedarville, Ohio. 

THE BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO, 

As a distinct breed, dates back to the formation of the flock of 
the late Wm. Berry of Washington County, Pa., in 1821. Mr.. 
Berry obtained his foundation stock from the famous flock of 
the late W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio, and bred his 
flock up with great care until late in the 40' s, when it was 
divided between his sons William and Matthew Berry, from 
whose flocks came the foundations for the later flocks of 
William, John M. and CM. Berry. From these have sprung 
a multitude of other flocks now widely scattered over the 
United States. The organization of the flock registry asso- 
ciation for recording these sheep and maintaining purity of 
blood and a high standard of form, fleece and general char- 







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38 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

acter for them, was perfected in the early 80' s, and the 
association is now one of the leading sub-Merino recOrd 
societies in the country, with headquarters in Washington 
County, Pa. This excellent breed of sheep is briefly charac- 
terized by its chief promoters as follows: 

Full grown rams in fleece should weigh not less than 175 
lbs., and mature ewes, in fleece, not less than 120 lbs. In 
normal physical development they should be deep and large 
in the breast and through the heart, with broad back, square 
quarters, fine pinlvish sliin, well expanded nostril, bright 
eye, clean, healthy countenance, head carried well up, body 
symmetrical and of good length, of heavy bone, smooth 
joints, well sprung ribs, broad, flat shoulders, strong muscles, 
plain body and small dew-laps. Head should be Avide with 
medium length, medium, well-defined ears, covered with soft 
fur. Ewes hornless, but rams should have good, clear, finely 
curved horns. The neck medium length and strong, deepen- 
ing toward the shoulders. Legs medium length, good bone 
and well apart, and the feet medium size, well turned and 
firm. The fleece should be even and crimpy, covering the 
body and legs to the knees, and the head well covered for- 
ward between the eyes, and free from hair. Staple, medium 
or flne delaine, not less than three inches long, of uniform 
length, and fleece compact with free flowing white oil form- 
ing on the exterior a uniform dark coating. 



WILD SHEEP OF NORTHERN EUROPE. 




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40 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

THE fMPROVED BLACK TOP MERINO. 

Tills strain of the Merino is represented by a class of 
sheep of which the prevailing chai-acteristic is the unifoiin 
dark top on the surface of the fleece, due to the even dis- 
tribution of the natural oil which lubricates the fleece of all 
sheep, but most especially of the various strains of the 
Merino. It is a question among breeders of this type of 
sheep, whether the oil and yollv are really of any value 
to the fleece, at least to the large extent to which it accom- 
panies the wool. This matter has been incidentally referred 
to in preceding pages and the belief expressed that this oil 
and yolk is indispensable to this class of sheep, for the 
reason, that as its fiber is so much crimped and wavy, and 
inclined to felt, the natural supplj^ of the oily matter of the 
fleece is indispensable to the actual value of it. The special 
character of the wool of the Merino classes, and its strong 
tendency to felt together, render this natural product of the 
highest value, and we cannot dispense with it. 

In the scale of poiuts of this sub-breed of the Merinos, 
the oil in the fleece is rated at six per cent; the staple, not 
less than three and a half inches in length, eight; the 
condition of the fit tee at six, the quality of the wool at seven, 
the evenness of the fleece at eight, the body at sixteen, and 
the size and constitution at thirty. These figures tell the 
story of the aims and ends of the breeders of this class of 
the Merino. 

The weights run from 180 for rams to 130 lbs. for ewes, 
and the regularity of the make up in general goes to figure 
out a fair mutton animal. The breed originated from the 
nock of Mr. Dickinson of Ohio, the direct produce of the 
Humphrey importations from Spain in 1802. By close but 
judicious breeding, this present strain — or breed as it is now 
entitled to be called— has become differentiated from the 
common American Merinos, and is marked by the special 
characteristics set forth in the herd record of the Associa- 
tion, in which six hundred and sixty animals are entered, 
being the aggregate of nine pure bred flocks all going back 
to the original Humphrey importation. The flock of the 
President of the Association, Mr. Robert Johnson of Wash- 
ington County, Pa., was founded in 1844. Since -that time 
the best rams to be procured have been selected, but for 




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42 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

thirteen years past the flock has had no infusion of outside 
blood. 

THE SAXONY MERINO. 

The sheep is one of the indispensable acquisitions of the 
human race, and all the kinds in existence, and those 
that may come into existence hereafter, will find a welcome 
and a home among the rest of the flocks. Once on a time 
the Merino, and the Saxony Merino especially, was the 
highest valued of all the ovine race. That was when the 
exquisitely line fleece was in high demand for the manu- 
facture of the best broadcloths used for the clothing of 
the wealthy and fashionable people, who dare not appear 
at any social gathering or festival except in this finest 
of all attire. But this habit, both iu respect of manner 
and dress, still prevails, and this finest wooled sheep of all 
the fine wool class, will possibly ever be in the first place 
among the finest wooled sheep. 

It is the offspring of the ancient Merino, from which the 
Spanish flocks descended tluw.igh two thousand years of 
the history of a turbulent period, during which our present 
civilization was in pn'ocess of slow growth. In spite, of 
wars and the dense ignorance of the so-called dark ages, 
the Spanish flocks survived, and in time became the progeni- 
tors of this race. By reason of the well adapted climate, 
and high culture of the farms, as well as of the sheep, this 
breed improved in quality, and soon after its firm establish- 
ment it became the chief producer of the fine wools for 
which Germany has long been noted, and now stands in 
the first place among the nations for its fine woolens, especi- 
ally for the finest cloths and hosiery. In respect of 
climatic adaptation, the United States is first in the whole 
world, and a place is, and always will be, found for every 
kind of sheep or other domestic animals; and as our cattle 
and horses have surpassed in value and excellence their 
progenitors in other countries, so the sheep of every kind 
may find room and development by the culture of our intelli- 
gent shepherds. 

The fleece of this sheep has sold for three dollars afud 
twenty-five cents a pound, and while intense speculation at 
times has been disastrous to the breed along with other of 



44 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

the Merino class, yet it has survived and its v^ool known as 
Electoral, from the title of the Saxon Prince who fostered 
it with much care in its earlier days, always brings, aaid 
doubtless always will bring, the highest price of any wool 
produced. 

Its greatest value, however, is for crossing on the coarser 
breeds for the purpose of improving the fleece, and past 
experience goes to show that this, the finest wool sheep 
existing, has undoubtedly an important place to fill in the 
future rearing of a larger bodied animal with a fleece 
of equal fineness and strength and brilliance of staple. We 
may know what has occurred in this line of improving 
sheep, but our dreams, even, may not equal the reality 
which may hapjjen in time in this direction. The advance 
of every industry in every direction, is a constant denial 
of the thought that we have reached porfecticwi in any de- 
gree in the breeding and rearing of sheep, or in the product 
of wool. And the field for enterprise is wide open, and al- 
ways will be for skillful experiment by advanced breeders. 
Of late years the carcass of this sheep has been increased 
in size, and like that of the larger French Merino varieties, 
makes fine mutton, having an excellent fiavor. With our 
greater advantage here we may well expect to make this 
once smallest of its race equal to any others of it, as a 
mutton sheep. In its original home it has been considerably 
improved in this way, and in the hands of the equally intel- 
ligent and skillful American breeders it will have a success- 
ful future. 

THE RAMBOUILLET MERINO, 

The so-called Rambouillet Merino breed of sheep' has be- 
come exceedingly popular during a few years past. This is 
really the true French Merino, quite as much so deserving 
this name as our native bred Merino deserves to be Called as 
a distinguishing name the American Merino. For it has a 
longer history as a distinct family of the Spanish Merino 
than the American variety has, for it was first originated 
some years before the first importation of the Merino into 
the United States. 

It was in 1786 that the French Government, with the 
intention of founding a special race of sheep fitted for the 



46 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

climate and otlier conditions of the country— then having no 
distinct and really valuable breed of sheep within its bor- 
ders — purchased, with the friendly help of the Spanish Gov- 
ernment, over three hundred of the finest specimens of the 
sheep of that country. A suitable farm for the accommoda- 
tion of this flock was procured at a place known as Ram- 
bouillet, not far from Paris, and once tlie residence of the 
kings of France. In the beautiful park near the otherwise 
unnoteworthy village of this name, this flock was cultivated 
with the highest skill by the Government for the advantage 
of the citizens. No sheep were sold for many years, nor 
until—by selection and breeding— a distinctly new race, in- 
deed a well-defined breed, was produced differing in several 
important points from the original foundation stock. 

It was increased in size, and even more than proportion- 
ately to tbis in the weight of the fleece, the wool of which 
was increased in length to fully three inches and even more, 
while the exquisite fineness and delicacy of fiber was in no 
ways depreciated. The size of the sheep became double 
that of the original Spanish flock, full grown ewes Aveighing 
up to two hundred pounds, and the rams up to three hun- 
dred, live weight. This improved fleece became the valua- 
ble staple for the manufacture of those popular dress goods 
known as the French Merino, as well as for mixed fabrics 
of cotton warp and weft of this wool, and which were 
known as delaines. From this style of exceedingly popular 
fabric, which was beautifully printed in the French facto- 
ries, this sheep has taken the sometime name of the Delaine 
Merino. Here it takes the name commonly of the place of 
its origin as the Rambouillet breed, and truly it deserves 
this popular name in commemoration of the place of its 
origin, which will doubtless retain this name, and for years 
to come in the future in association with this magnificent 
sheep, valued both for its flesh and its wool, when all remem- 
brance of the frivolous and vicious occupants of the park 
and ancient chateau will have been lost in the then long 
past. 

The author visited this flock in the year 1848, and was 
entertained in the most cordial manner by the superin- 
tendent, who prepared a saddle of the mutton, cooked es- 
pecially in the American style, as a sample of the excellent 







O o 
P5 pq 



§f^ 



48 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

quality of the meat. The sheep had been fed on the fine 
pastures of the park and on beets specially grown for the 
Hocks. The meat was distinctly equal to the best of the Eng- 
lish mutton of the choicest breed of that country, the South- 
down, and showed that the skillful breeding and the really 
scientific feeding cf the sheep, had transformed the tough, 
dry flesh of the original Spanish sJieep into one of the 
best market meats in the world. This point is one to be well 
considered by our breeders of this sheep, for the future pros- 
perity of the American shepherds is to come, not from the 
wool alone, but still more from the mutton, which is so 
rapidly coming into popular favor everywhere; and even in 
the Southern States, in which mutton has scarcely ever been 
thought of as a food, and good meat of this kind is practi- 
cally as unpopular as it is poor and undesirable in quality. 

It is one of the good qualities* of this sheep that the fleece 
is far more profitable for its weight than our native Merino. 
This is due to the absence of the excessive quantity of yolk 
and gum in the wool. The result of this of course is to in- 
crease the proportion of actual avooI in the fleece. Fleeces of 
nearly fifty pounds weight— this of course as taken from the 
sheep— are by no means surprising; such a weight of course 
is the product of full gro^^n rams, but yearlings have given 
fifteen pounds for the first shearing; over tTventy-seven for 
the second; thirtj'-seven for the third; and forty-eight for the 
fourth. These weights are not of unusually long avooI but 
are due to the actual density of the wool on the skin, which 
is one of the common features of this sheep. 

There are two other varieties of the Merino, or the most 
valuable short fine-wooled sheep. These are the Silesian and 
the Saxon Merinos. But as these sheep are small, the fleece 
light, and too fine for the now prevalent classes of woolen 
goods, they are merely mentioned without going in any way 
into a discussion of their special characteristics. It is 
scarcely probable that in the present, and doubtless future 
progress of our woolen manufactures, we shall ever need to 
find the rearing of these special fine-wooled sheep profitable. 
It will be the future business of the shepherd to supply 
the demand for mutton, a demand that is unquestionably 
bound to increase steadilj^ until we shall approach, if not 
overtake and pass, the condition of the sheep industry in 



FRENCH BREEDS. 49 

Great Britain, where there are no less than 240 sheep lo 
every square mile, or three to every eight acres, while heie 
we have but uiue sheep to the square Miiie, or one only to 
each seventy acres. 

With this view in the not far ciistaucc, it is quite clear 
that sheep that are of no value for mutton will never be 
able to compete with those wliich supply our most valuable 
manufacturing- industries with its raw material, and when 
mature for the market, either as a lamb or a mutton, will 
sfupply the ever-increasing demand in this direction. This 
view is to be always considered by the American shephevd 
as the basis of a successful choice of the flock. 

' U'HE FliENCH BKEEDS. 

It is one of the jnost conspicuous facts in regard to the 
culture of sheep that the most attention as given to breeding 
and feeding the flocks in those countries in which mutton 
is a. favorite and important article of food. The English 
people consume more of this meat than any other nation— 
indeed doubtless as much as all other nations put together. 
And while the English are beef eaters to a large extent, 
yet their mutton furnishes more than a half of their flesh 
meat. The result has been that this nation has paid more 
attention to the breeding of sheep and have more varieties 
than any other nation. So that it is the fact that in furnish- 
ing our farms and ranges with flocks we are forced to look 
to Great Britain, w'uich is England and Scotland combined, 
for our stock, and also for the replenishing of it with new 
blood. It may be. and doubtless will be, that in a few years 
more American shepherds will have so far acclimated their 
sheep and have so successfully bred them, and by the exer- 
cise of such skill as many of our foremost shepherds possess 
and apply to their special industry, we shall be able to de- 
pend wholly on our native flocks for all our breeding stock 
as well as have created such special families as will best 
suit our climate and conditions. Doubtless our system of 
agriculture will improve under the stimulaiing effect of the 
high culture of our flocks, and thus the sheep, as the old 
adage goes, will prove to us that it has a golden hoof by the 
vast increase in wealth it will secure to our agricultural 
interest. 



50 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



It Will be of interest, however, to know something of 
what is doing in this line of sheep breeding and culture m 
other countries, for instance in France, where the Merino has 
achieyed a world-wide notoriety for its special value as a 
wool producer, as well as for a very good mutton sheep. 

The Merino stands first in France as it does in Germany, 
and Spain. But on the whole the rather stolid and careless 
system of husbandry in those countries is not well adapted 
to enterprise or success in improving the live stock of any 
kind. But some of the most intelligent French breeders 




LEICESTER-MERINO CROSS. 

have recently taken considerable interest in the improve- 
ment of their flocks by crossing on them the English breeds, 
especially the Leicester and the Southdown. The former 
-cross with the Merino has produced an excellent sheep with 
a good carcass and a valuable fleece, and the produce of this 
cross is the most popular, as it is the most valuable. This 
good work has been done in the best cultivated districts as 
Champagne, Beauce, and Chattillonais. There the best 
farming in France is to be seen, and sheep rearing is one of 
the most profitable parts of it. The most common sheep of 
these localities,, how^ever, is the cross of the old natives by the 
French Merino. The produce of these crosses go by the 
name of Metis-Merino or half-bred Mei'ino. The Merinos 
have been crossed with the English Leicester with the result 



PKENCH BREEDS. 61 

of making an excellent mutton sheep, which was received 
with much favor as something new to the French people. 
This cross, however, for want of sustaining by new l)]oo(l 
has retrograded and fallen into some disrepute, not the fault 
cf the sheep at all, but for the reason that the French breed- 
.ers do not possess the art and skill of those of England. It 
should be said, however, that as regards the Merino, especi- 
alb* under the care of the manager of tlie Kambouillet farm, 
this want of skill finds a noted exception. 

The French possess some native long-wooled sheep, the 
best of which are to be found in the localities of Normandy, 
Picardy and the Vendeean. These sheep, however, are 
worthless as compared with the English breeds, as they still 
retain all the ungaiuliness and ill form of the old races be- 
fore any skilled attempt was made for their improvement. 
These breeds are noted for their long legs and thin thighs- 
all bare of wool, long drooping ears, and coarse thin wool on 
their sides. But they have the advantage of easy fattening 
when fed for mutton. The American traveler who is en- 
tertained wjth the gigot, as the leg is called, of the native 
flocks is ill satisfied with the dry and coarse meat, especially 
after having been used to the English Southdown or Lei- 
cester leg. One of the picturesque sights on the French 
pastures, on the western coast districts, is the shepherds 
mounted on high stilts guarding their flocks apt to get out 
of their sight behind the low hummocks or in the frequent 
hollows of the broad almost uninhabited Llandes, l.ving be- 
tween the considerable cities of Bordeaux and Bayonne. This 
almost barren region, a waste of sandy land overgrown b,v 
low bushes and coarse herbage, among which the lean, ill- 
conditioned flocks of scraggy-wooled sheep range and feed, 
is the locality of wretched hovels inhabited b.Y a stunted race 
of shepherds who clothe themselves in the skins of their 
sheep, the legs of which furnish coverings for the limbs of 
the people, being drawn on when soft and pliable and 
yet warm from the stunted sheep, and stay on until they are 
worn off. when they are renewed. The skins also furnish 
jackets for these picturesque shepherds, possibly such as 
kept the flocks of the patriarchs in the old days of .Tacob. 
who tended doubtless in some such manner the flocks of his 
father-in-law, and paid for his wives in the staple currency 



53 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

of the time— sheep from his flock. It is an amazing thing to 
an American to see such a sight in this advanced age and 
compare it with what he sees among the floclis of his own 
country or those of England and Scotland. 

The famed cheese of Roquefort, however, leads the 
traveler in search of information about the sheep of this 
country to a somewhat more entertaining sight. This is the 
flocks of quite good sheep kept for their milk, of which the 
finest cheese in the world is made, and which brings in the 
New York stores one dollar a pound. The ewes are regu- 
larly milked, and having been bred for this p'"oduct, yield 
quite a considerable quantity of rich milk. The sheep's mil'v 
is rich in fat, having one half more of it than that of a 
cow. This sheep is kept and fed with much care on the 
sweet pastures of the limestone soil of this noted locality. 
They are a well formed race with good frames, but not noted 
for their proclivity for wool bearing. 

At the French agricultural exhibitions the imported 
English sheep take the first prizes, and the favored breeds 
of them are the Southdowns and the Oxfords, certainly prov- 
ing that the most advanced of the French shepherds have at 
least some faculty for distinguishing good sheep sometimes. 

The advanced American shepherd, however, has not 
much to learn from the French sheep breeders except so far 
as to discover the effects of ages of neglect, as well in a few 
instances the advantages of skillful breeding. The thoncr!^'. 
occurs, unavoidably, that it is a mark of the high civilization 
of a people to find fine flocks of sheep, as it is equally to 
find intelligent and skillful breeders in any country. 

France has something over twenty-one million of sheep 
of Avhich there are 302,481 rams, about thirty ewes fo^' each 
ram, nearly 4,000,000 wether?;, nearly as many yearling 
lambs, and 4,700.000 young lambs, according to the census 
of 1895, which is the last one published. 

BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

The Merino, previously described as the American, is the 
only breed which we can claim as distinctly a product of 
the energy and skill of American breeders. It must be 
taken into account that to establish a breed, much time is 
required; a century is short enough to establish and firmly 



BRITISH BREEDS. 53 

fix a type even on so impressible an animal as a sheep. 
Consequently as, with the exception of the Merino, there has 
never been any eltort to make a special aeclimatation antl 
variation by special treatment and culture, we are still rear- 
ing what are essentially the foreign breeds> and of these 
those native to Great Britain are the kinds kept on this 
continent. 

Thus in describing the breeds now in the hands of 
American shepherds, we have so far nothing by which any 
one of them may be ditferentiated as in any way American 
by any variation. The descriptions of the varieties now kept 
here, with those of some kinds not yet introduced or estab- 
lished to any extent, which will be given, very closely tally 
with those found in the English live stock records, and this 
we choose to do because so far we have not here departed 
in any conspicuous mamier from the real English types, as 
indeed these are yet our own standards, and importations 
are still making very freely to maintain these types. It is 
a question sometimes discussed by the special, live stock 
journals here, if the time has yet come when we should 
stop this continued importa^tion to restore some supposed 
failure in quality of the home bred sheep by deterioration 
due to our dryer climate and our different methods of feed- 
ing. We do not join in this thought at all, but have the firm- 
est possible belief that as with the American Merino so 
with the other breeds of foreign sources, the time will come 
when our breeders may safely depend on our own flocks for 
the sustentation of our adopted breeds, and put them on as 
excellent a basis as we have put our Merino. This is not, 
however, to be done in a clay, nor is itsi work to be lightly 
undertaken, but tliere are slcillful and scientific breeders on 
this side of the Atlantic who will in time take this work in 
hand, and due encouragement should be given to their efforts 
to establish true American breeds by the full aeclimatation 
of our present breeds, and others, whfch it is the intention 
to show may be yet added to our stocks. In the meantime 
we shall take advantage of the good work of the English 
breeders Avhose best specimens of sheep will yet find an 
acceptable market on this side of the ocean, and still further 
furnish us material which in time we shall be sending back 
across the ocean as welcome contrbutions of American skill 



54 'rilE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

aud enterprise, for the beuelit of the old flocks, as we have 
done already In regard to our finest specimens of cattle and 
horses. 

SHOKT-WOOL SHEEP. 

The Southdown is the generally accepted type of a mut- 
ton and short clothing wool sheep. It is moreover worthy of 
the first place in this category, for the reason that it has 
been the sire of all other so-called Down breeds, crossed 
on various old-fashioned races which had become obsiolete, 
and indeed unprofitable, in competition with the finer fiocks 
of the eminent breeders who had brought their sheep to 
the highest degree of perfection. It is one of the most beau- 
tiful sheep existing; its smooth even body, its round clean 
barrel, its short legs, fine head, and broad saddle, with its 
sweet, tender, never over-fat meat, make it especially the 
ornament of a well kept lawn on any gentleman's country 
place as well as the profitable stock of the farmer or special 
breeder. Its mutton has long been held in the highest consid- 
eration, and although it has some active rivals in general 
popularity, it will be very severely missed if it were to fall 
into neglect. In breeding it is always necessary for the 
maintenance of the desired type to go back tO' the original 
sires at times, to renew or strengthen certain points of ex- 
cellence in the cross breed. Aud as the Southdown has been 
the sire of so many of our best breeds, it will always be de- 
sirable that this breed should be kept in reserve for future 
usefulness. For a farm sheep fed for domestic use and for 
the home supply of wool, as well as for its other pleasing 
and profitable qualities, this should be well thought of among 
other claimants for general favor. The wealthy proprietor 
of a farm or country place might always have a flock of 
Southdowns on his lawn for ornament, and as well for the 
supply of his hospitable table. If this breed is ever suffered 
to become extinct it will be a most serious loss in the future; 
for it has many valuable, profitable points. Its lamb from 
a Merino or a common native ewe is the most popular 
for the market. The market men recognize its plumpness, 
its light offal, its popular black face, and its tenderness, 
juiciness, and fatness; all indispensable requirements for the 
table. This cross-bred lamb has been sold by the author for 



56 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

ten doiraf s a head "for the earliest, and never less than three 
dollars when under three mouths old. It is not the 
size but the qualitj^ of the market lamb which regulates the 
price of it to the breeder. We all know how difficult it is to 
change a popular taste and start it in a new channel; and 
this Old popularity of the black or smutty faces, and their 
plump round cai'casses, will not be easily altogether done 
away with. 

A well fed Southdown should weigh 18 lbs. the quarter 
at a year old, which is near the popular margin as to weight; 
at two years old a fat wether will easily make 33 to 35 lbs. 
to the quarter, butchers' weight; and yield two-thirds its 
live weight in marketable meat.* 

There is always a market for the wool, which is one of 
the standard staples for flannels and clothing fabrics. And it 
may be said in favor of this once most common sheep, that 
it is one of the most easily kept of all breeds. Its native 
home on the thin chalk downs of Southern England, of 
which the herbage is thin' and short, but very sweet and 
nutritious, indicates the kind of lands on which tbis sheep 
will do its best as to profit. 

THE SHROPSHIRE. 

The Shropshire shares the popularity of its chief progeni- 
tor, the Southdown, whose dark face and legs it inherits. 
The original type, the Morfe Common sheep, had a dark 
spotted face and horns. It was a small sheep, yielding a 
fleece of not over two pounds, and making a dressed weight 
of eleven to fourteen pounds the quaaler. This sheep was 
crossed by Southdown rams which quickly gave an im- 
proved quality, but the size was not profitable. The Leices- 
ter sire was then introduced which gave the desired size and 
weight, and Increased the length and quantity of the fleece. 
By very skillful breeding the cross has been brought to a 
fixed type without any indication of reversion in any way. 
It may now be considered as an established breed, and able 
to support its present high character as a farmer's sheep, 
or for the range flocks. It is one of the hardiest sheep, 
except perhaps as to the unusually early lambs which at 
times may need some protection when coming in advance of 
the season. 



^"^ 






\ .. t^ 







o 2a 



I-: O O 



pi '.'(/J 



58 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Its mutton is excellent, but like that of all other sheep 
it is affected by the food, and for its best qualitj^ should be 
finished on such succulent food as turnips, or mangels, but 
best of all on sugar beets. It lives well on thin pasture and 
is easily fatted for market. 

Its fleece is longer and a little coarser than that of the 
Southdown, and that of a good ordinary flock of ewes should 
weigh seven or eight pounds to the fleece. Its average 
dressed weight is twenty to twenty-two pounds to the quar- 
ter, when finished in the best manner. 

The Shropshire's face is longer and larger than that of 
the Southdown, the nose is slig:htly protuberant (Roman) in 
form, the ears a little larger. The face and legs are blackish 
brown or sometimes mottled with gray. White spots on these 
places are objectionable as considered from the standpoint 
of the standard of excellence, and black spots on the body 
should be held a,s a disqualification, especially for breeding 
animals. Thin ears are indications of tenderness of consti- 
tution, and should be objected to by those who desire to 
maintain the stau'ina of the breed. A somewhat run-down 
and neglected flock has been immediately restored by a new 
cross of the Southdown. The high character of this breed 
is shown by its appearance all over the U. S. and Canada. 

The fleece should l5e wholly free from black hairs, fine 
in staple, somewhat longer than that of the Southdown, 
and closely set on a clear pinky skin. Breeding for increased 
weight of fleece has resulted in producing coarse wool, and 
in selecting rams the fineness and close setting of the fleece 
are to be considered before mere weight. This breed is 
essentially one for the farm flock, while it is duly hardy 
and a fit rustlei'for the ranges. It has a strong constitution, 
good feet, and is especially free from the common diseases 
of the flocks. 

THE HAMPSHIRE DOWN. 

This is a cross breed, of which the preponderating charac- 
teristic is its early maturity. Sir John B. Lawes, in his most 
instructive experiments in feeding, proved that the Hamp- 
shire made more weight of carcass from the same quantity 
and kind of food, than the hitherto unsurpassed Southdown. 
The principal point in favor of this breed is its early matur- 



60 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

ity, and this is of the greatest importance in these days, 
when time for feeding is the main element of protit. As will 
be observed later, when the science and art of feeding will 
be discussed, it is far cheaper to feed a young animal than 
an old one. For every part of the young animal is growing; 
the bone; vital organs; the whole of the carcass, flesh and 
fat; all gain by the food; and the system is more amenable 
to improvement in a young animal than in a mature one; 
less of the food being lost in mere existence, as compared 
with growth. Thus a qiiicli growing animal in the early part 
of its life is the most cheaply fed, for the cost of the food 
and attention are the least for the most increase in weight. 

The whole system of breeding this sheep has been to 
reach this end, and the exceedingly hardy original stock — a 
large horned sheep which ran at large on the open downs of 
Central England so far back as the time of the old Romans, 
when they occupied the island, and which supplied the 
fleeces for the first w^oolen factoa-y established at Winchester 
during the Roman occupation about twenty centuries ago— 
was naturally fitted to establish a breed with- strong consti- 
tution and ability for improvement. This breed has re- 
mained one of the old standards since that early time, and 
by its survival to within eighty years ago, when improve- 
ment first began, proves its fitness to survive in its hardy con- 
stitution and its intrinsic value as a w^ool bearer, for which 
it w^as originally valued. 

The first effort made in its improvement was the use of 
Southdown rams for crossing oa the native Hampshire 
ewes. The ancient race had a large bony narrow carcass, 
large heads, prominent Roman noses, long curly horns, the 
carcass was high at the withers, narrow and sharp ridged 
along the back, but it w^as the largest short wooled sheep in 
existence. 

To make of this ungainly animal one profitable to the 
farmer for its flesh and fleece, was a problem to be solved 
by the eminent improvers of live sto-ck of all kinds in those 
—now a century old — days. It was solved as others have 
been by the use of the short-legged, broad-backed, thick-set, 
close-wooied Southdow^n, a very anti-type of what this old 
Hampshire then was. The first crosses were effective to 
gain the points the original breeders of the Hampshire- 



63 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Downs wanted. The cross was repeated again and again, 
tlie native prepotency of tlie old race striving liard for pre- 
ponderance; but tlie better bred blood of the improving race 
in time prevailed, and after many crosses with the South- 
down the horns disappeared, the white face was changed to a 
black one, the frame, loose and angular, was brought by 
degrees to a compact body, with a broad back, round bar- 
rel, short legs, and superior quality of flesh, with a quick 
feeding habit, and an ability to make the earliest growth 
and the most salable weight, both of carcass and fleece, 
for the food consumed. The ancient colossal head with its 
bulging nose has been changed for one of pleasing propor- 
tions, yet strong and indicating a vigorous and hardy nerv- 
ous constitution. The brain is capacious and the body is 
evenly molded, deep and broad on the back, wide between 
the forelegs, and full behind, a model carcass for the 
butcher, and for the satisfaction of the breeder. 

Its hardiness is unquestionable. It is at home on the 
Southern old field, on the best cultivated farms of the East 
and West, and away on the Northwestern ranges it sustains 
itself as a triumph of the breeders' art. 

Before the late war between the North and South a lot of 
this breed had been imported into Virginia, and were flourish- 
ing. The misfortunes of the strife tended to scatter the 
flocks which became distributed over the Southern States. 
Some black faces found in the N. Carolina mountains were 
traced back to these Virginia flocks, and the evidences of 
the value of this breed for crossing on the thin, ill-formed, 
unprofltable, native sheep, are to be met with in the still 
black faces of well farmed thrifty sheep scattersd here and 
there among the elevated Southern pastures. 

This breed is well adapted for improving" the small 
liglit bodied native ewes. It is commonly thought that to 
use a large bodied ram on these small light ewes is bad 
practice, for the alleged reason that the large size of the re- 
sulting lamb will endanger the small ewes, and be born 
with difilculty. 

This, as is stated at more length in the chapter on breed- 
ing, is noit based on scientific principles, or on common sense 
and experience. For the male merely contributes the vital 
germ of life to its offspring, with ha-bit of growth ^and assim- 




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64 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

nation of food after birth; the ewe gives only the life and 
its own substance to its offspring, and while the lamb is of 
the normal size for. the ewe, it has the ability of its sire to 
grow and turn more food than its dam ever could do into 
growth. There is no good reason therefore why a well ored 
Hampshire ram should not be used for the improvement of 
the smallest of our common sheep. Its natural history goes 
to prove its fitness for this use under certain circumstances, 
which malce its use desirable for this purpose. 

The recognized points of excellence of this breed are its 
rather massive head with its prominent Roman nose, and the 
absence of horns or rudiments of them, as slugs, snags or 
buds. The face and legs are deep black, the fleece is free 
from all black spots and is close and fine all over the body. 
The skin is pink under the wool. The ears are somewhat 
pointed as compared with those of the Southdown, of a 
dark mouse color behind, and free from light specks or 
mottling. The forequarters are broad and the breadth of 
carcass should be maintained down to the rump. As this 
is one of the most conspicuous faults of the breed, it is to 
be guarded against in choosing rams for the increase of the 
pure bred flocks. 

THE SUFFOLK. 

The Suffolk sheep has only recently come into promi- 
nence as a breed. It is only since 1886 that it was given a 
class at the Royal Agricultural exhibitions, but since that 
time the breeders have formed an association, and by strong 
efforts have brought their sheep into notice. This sheep is 
similar in mauy respects to the Hampshire, but is not so com- 
pact in form, and the short black hair on the face extends 
over the head which is thus devoid of wool. It is as yet in 
process of formation as a breed, and has its history to make. 
It is, as may be seen from the illustration given, a neat, well 
formed sheep, with a good carcass and something of the 
Hampshire type about it. 

THE OXFOED DOWN. 

This sheep is a double cross, being made up of the 
Hampshire ewe, a distinctly cross bred animal, with the 
Cotswold ram. It is the largest of this class of sheep, ex- 
celling the Hampshire in size at the same age. It is a later 



66 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

sheep to bring lambs, so that geuerally it suffers undeserved 
detraction on account of the lighter weight of the lambs 
at the exhibitions, a*s compared with the earlier dropped 
llampshires. The carcass weighs twenty to twenty-four 
pounds the quarter at a year or fourteen months old. 

This sheep has not so dark a face as the Hampshire, this 
being somewhat mottled, nor is the shoulder so broad as 
in the Hampshire. It has not the evenness of its close com- 
petitor, showing a less well defined type, and thus needing 
longer breeding Avith careful selection of the rams used, 
as well as of the ewes. Lambs are bred bj^ the English 
farmers by crossing these ewes with a Hampshire ram. foi' 
the purpose of darkening the face, and the reverse cross 
is used when the face is satisfactory but the form is not. 
Then a Cotswoid ram is used. Sometimes a Shropshire ram 
is chosen and the result of tliis cross is a much improved 
carcass, broad along the back, and with better liind quarters. 
When well selected ran)s are used this breed is one of the 
most profitable for mutton, and as the fleece is an excellent 
worsted atooI and weighs seven poimds on an average, it is 
a valuable addition to our adopted breeds. It is one of th» 
best farm sheep, although it has a good reputation for range 
purposes. For this it is not to be thought that it is the pur- 
pose of the shepherd to make a fiock of this breed; on the 
other hand the rams of this and other breeds are procured 
to cross on the common native or grade sheep, and thus pro- 
duce a high grade whose value is easily doubled by this use 
of good rams. It is thus a matter for the shepherd to select 
the rams he may find the most valuable for this use, and the 
Oxford Down is well worthy of regard for this purpose. 
The sheep shown in the illustration was the champion of all 
breeds in the two shear class at the Oxfordshire show of last 
year. 

THE DORSET. 

This sheep in its native country goes by the name or 
class of the Somerset and Dorset Horned breed. Of late 
years this breed has become exceedingly popular on this 
continent, mostly however for its special fecundity and early 
breeding habit. Indeed it is so prolific that two lambing sea- 
sons in the year are possible under the right management. 
It is a white faced sheep with a close short fleece used 



68 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

for flannel goods, and such clothing fabrics as require such 
a material. It is thus a useful sheep for its wool alone, of 
which the fleece will weigh four or five pounds. It is a 
native of the southern part of England in which the mild, 
delicious climate permits tender plants such as the fuchsia, 
the heliotrope and the geranium to bloom the whole year 
round, covering tlie picturesque cottages with their brilliant 
bloom, while the northern parts of the country are covered 
with snow. 

It is solidly built, having a broad back and short legs; 
it has a tuft of wool on its forehead, and ewes are horned 
as well as the rams. It is one of the most ancient of the 
English breeds, and has been preserved in its original purity 
from a remote period. Its breeders claim that it was exist- 
ing before the lioman invasion, more than two thousand 
years ago. But of late it has been carefully improved by the 
selection of the best rams and the diligent search for the 
most prolific ewes, of whom it is not at all rare that the 
breeder may obtain four or even five lambs in the year.. 
It is larger than tlie Southdown and although most esteemed 
for its prolificacy yet its mutton is above the average of its 
class of short-wooled sheep. The wethers, under good feed- 
ing, reach a dressed weight of twenty pounds the quarter; 
the forequarters however are apt to be light. They are a 
hardy sheep and since their introduction here have proved 
to be well suited to our cold Winters and warm Summers. 
They have also proved to be Avell adapted to the ranges, 
being excellent travelers and rustlers. 

Their most prominent characteriistic, however, is their 
unrivalled fecundity. Taking the ram in May they rear 
lambs ready for the market in the holidays, and breeding 
again soon after dropping the lambs bring another or other 
lambs in March or April, and often bringing twins and some- 
times triplets, thus increase very fast, besides making a good 
profit for the lambs sold. It is the usual custom to breed the 
ewes to a Southdown or Hampshire ram, by which the mar- 
ket lamb has a black face which is generally preferred by 
the butchers. No other breed of sheep is so prolific as 
this under skillful management. 

The breed is sustained by breeding the ewes to one of 
their own race for the increase of the flock, and the long 




§3 



70 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

experience of the breeders may be taken as a complete 
contradiction of the naturalist's belief, to the effect, that 
crossing a pure bred animal outside of its own kind is apt 
to produce diversion and make the breed impure by the 
effect of the cross on the character of the ewe. The long 
peculiar history of the Dorset goes to show that, with sheep 
certainly, the outcross does in no way vitiate the blood of 
the females so bred. 

The peculiar system of rearing these market or house 
lambs will be especiaHy noticed in another chapter. 

The Somerset sheep is somewhat larger than the Dorset 
and differs from it in having a pink nose, that of the Dorset 
being white. The wool is also a little longer, and the lambs 
are heavier. This breed has however the same special pecu- 
liarities, being used for rearing early lambs, which are fatted 
and often sold with the ewes at the same time. 

A smaller variety of the Dorset is the Portland sheep, 
reared on the island of Portland, where not more than a 
few thousand are kept, principally for their sweet and del'- 
cate mutton, which brings a sufficiently high price to pay 
for rearing this small sheep, which do not weigh over ten or 
twelve pounds tlie quarter, when fat and fully matured. 

THE LONG-WOOL BREEDS. 
The Long-wool sheep are without horns, except in some of 
the mountain breeds, and one of these is fast losing this un- 
necessary appendage, once needed doubtless when this de- 
fense against the wolves and foxes was indispensable. The 
most conspicuous of this class of sheep is 

THE LINCOLN. 

Sheep are especially influenced by their environments. 
This is clearly proved by the large number of special breeds 
existing in the small extent of the British Islands, in which 
there are more sheep, and a greater variety of them, than in 
any other country in the world as compared with it in area. 
The English are a mutton eating people, and enjoy an enor- 
mous trade in woolen goods, having the great monopoly, as it 
were, of the world's markets for this invaluable product. 
This has existed for hundreds of years, nay it is nearly two 
thousand years since the first woolen factory was in opera- 
tion in that busy country. Consequently we cannot have a 




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72 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

better example before us of the desirability of a large 
variety of sheep, whether for mutton, of which we are be- 
coming large and larger consumers every year, oa* for wool 
of which we are working up more and more continually. 

The Lincoln sheep is a growth of many years' culture in 
a special district of England known as the Lincolnshire feus, 
and the adjoining counties of Norfolk and Cambridgeshire. 
In this district agriculture has been carried on under the 
highest system, the growth of roots, and the accompanying 
floclvs fed on this crop, having advanced the agricultural 
methods so conspicuously, that what is known as the Nor- 
folk system is held to be the highest type of farming. Hence 
it is to be expected that the sheep of this locality should be 
something beyond the common line. 

For centuries there has been a Lincoln breed of sheep 
which surpassed in size all other breeds. Its fleece also 
surpassed all others in length of fiber and weight. It was 
a great coarse animal, the wool swept the ground on which 
it fed, and an average fleece weighed twelve to fifteea 
poiuids, which a centurj' ago was phenomenal as compared 
with other breeds. The carcass was very fat inside, and 
made the then highly esteemed chops— having three fingers 
of fat on the meat. But, as might be easily thought, this big 
coarse animalwas not a profitable one after the work of 
Bakewell with his improved lieicesters was about complete. 
The intelligent breeders of the old Lincolns at once adopted 
Bakewell' s work, and improved their flocks" by crossing the 
New Leicesters on them. Thus the Leicesters took the same 
place with the Long-wools that was taken by the South- 
downs among the Short-wools. This crossing has changed 
the old Lfncoln from its former condition of a coarse form, 
with flat sides and hollow flanks, and big legs and feet, 
to one of handsome proportions, with finer wool, having good 
luster, and highly estimated for the worsteds class of goods. 
Its fleece has long been the material of which the bunting 
of the national flags of all countries have been manufactured 
on account of its great strength and its ability to withstand 
the battle and the breeze. Our own Stars and Stripes have 
this kind of wool for the raw material, and It is always 
in demand for braids and other manufactures which call for 
this special material, long fiber and great strength. 



74 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

The infusion of Leicester blood refined the great coarse 
animal, but still left its produce the largest sheep in exist- 
ence, the quarters of which weigh wheiu fullj^ finished for 
market thirty-seven pounds, and the fleece often twenty- 
four pounds. These weights are of course above the aver- 
age, but they go to show what type this sheep is of. 

Necessarily such a sheep is htted for the highest culture 
of the land, in which root crops take the most important 
place. In the United States, however, the silo takes the 
place of the roots, to a large extent, but yet roots and big 
sheep and heavy lleeces will always go together. 

But with our vast ranges we have occasion and space 
for this grand sheep for crossing on the common natives. 
This has been done to some extent in suitable circumstances, 
with much advantage, and when the shepherds will abandon 
the un^^■ise and Avholly wrong belief common among 
them, that a big ram is not suitable for crossing on little 
ewes on account of the supposed great size of the lamb 
thus produced, this breed will be extensively used for this 
purpose, producing a valuable mutton carcass and a most 
useful cross-bred wool. It is not, how^ever, a part of wisdom 
to suppose that this cross, violent as it is, will be the founda- 
tion for a new race having the excellencies of the Lincoln- 
shire. This subject, however, is too important to be more 
than suggested here; it lies at the foundation of the science 
of breeding, and must be left for consideration hereafter. 

This breed is white faced, and has a conspicuous tuft 
on the forehead, which is the most marked indication of the 
old blood in it. The head is massive but not coarse, the nose 
is somew^hat arched (Roman) and bare of wool. The brisket 
is full and deep, the body round and well proportioned, and 
while it is a heavy shieep it has no coarseness about it. It 
does not come up to its old weights either of carcass or 
fleece, but its quality is improved by the refinement it has 
undergone through many years of continuous careful breed- 
ing, making it a desirable sheep for its mutton and wool, 
and for the improvement of the common flocks. 

THE ROMNEY MARSH. 

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76 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

for pasturing on marshes. And thus the Romney Marsh 
sheep is a habitant of the extensive salt marshes of South- 
eastern England in the County of Kent. Considering that 
we have many millions of acres of similar lands on our sea 
coasts, this breed is by no means to be omitted in this recapit- 
ulation. Indeed it has been acclimated and kept with suc- 
cess on the coast lands of New^ England and New Jersey. 
It is supposed that the deadly parasite, the fluke, would for- 
bid the keeping of sheep on marsh lands; but this parasite, 
the cause of the liver rot of sheep, is never found on salt 
marshes, as its common bearer, in which it passes one stage 
of its existence, inhabits only fresh water. It is related in 
form and character to the old Lincoln, being a long wool 
sheep with a very closely coated fleece. As with the Lincoln 
it has been greatly modified and improved by infusion of 
Leicester blood. Like the Lincoln, too, its home is on rich 
pastures, and it is not uncommon for seven of these sheep, 
with as many wethers, to be kept on each acre of a pasture. 
This fact should be well considered by our readers, for fine 
sheep and a profitable flock must go with full feed, and the 
farm sheep is always a tj^pe of the culture of the land on 
which it is kept. 

By the crossing, it has been reduced in size and improved 
in form, while its fleece has been refined. It is a white faced 
breed mostly, having a forelock like the Lincoln, which it 
much resembles. It is an extremely hardy sheep, being rarely 
house-fed in the winter, pasturing on the marshes and 
meadows in all weathers through all the storms of a sea 
coast exposure. It is thus one of the breeds which may be 
adopted for range flocks, of which hardiness is a desirable 
characteristic. It is a profitable sheep for its fine mutton 
and its fleece, valuable for worsted goods. 

THE COTSWOLD. 

The Cotswold sheep has an interesting history. It is the 
oldest breed of sheep of which there is any satisfactory rec- 
ord. Its history goes back for at least three centuries, and 
beyond that, while it has no written records, yet it has been 
known that the long wool yielded by this sheep was in high 
favor long before the name of the sheep which produced it 
was a matter of notoriety. This long pedigree explains the 




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78 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

reason tor the great natural prepotency of the rams of this 
breed in the production of the various crosses which have 
been made by the Cotswold rams. It is one of the hardiest 
of all breeds, having been reared for this louig period in a 
poor exposed district, and while it changes character when 
removed to more favorable surroundings, yet it is one of the 
hardiest sheep for the range. It is the next largest sheep to 
the Lincoln, It is a good mutton sheep and has a good 
fleece of rather coarse wool, valuable for heavy goods. The 
flesh is not so line as that of the Down breeds, but is yet ex- 
cellent for the butchers' use when not over fifteen months 
old, when it fattens readily and makes twenty-five pounds 
to the quarter. Its old size has been somewhat reduced, to 
conform to the present demand for lighter carcasses. The 
fleece, too, is not so heavy as it used to be, when, it often 
weighed 12 lbs. or over of wool. It ha» been crossed with 
advantage with the Leicester, yielding then better mutton 
and a finer staple of lustrous v\'Ool, in good demand for 
heavy goods, and especially of the coarser kinds of women's 
dress fabrics. One of the best of its crosses is with the 
smaller DoAvn breeds. It has been used with much success 
to cross on the :Merino, the lambs of this cross making fine 
market stock, being large and fat, and the full grown cross 
breeds making fine market mutton and a useful fleece. Sir 
J. B. Lawes in liis experiments in feeding sheep of various 
breeds, proved that these sheep made a more profitable re- 
turn in growth for the food consumed than any other breed. 
Its liardiuess has been proved by its average losses by death 
or accident being as low as two and a half per ce'Ut under 
ordinary circumstances, under a system of open fielding dur- 
ing the winter. It has been kept mostly on a system of feed- 
ing in the open ground on turnips. 

The face of this sheep is mostly w^hite, sometimes with a 
grayish mottled marking; the cross with the Downs gives a 
blaclc face with a less pronounced Roman nose, which is 
how^ever less prominent than in the Lincoln and Leicester. 
The forehead has a conspicuous tuft of wool. The belly is 
generally well covered with wool, as is also the scrotum. 
For crossing on the smaller breeds, especially our common 
natives, it is not excelled in point of the hardiness of the 
progeny, the increased size and the weight an,.d value of 
tlie fleece. 




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80 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

THE WENSLEYDALE. 

The Wensleydale breed is the produce of a cross of the 
Leicester on a Yorkshire breed somewhat similar to the 
Lincoln. By continued selection it has become a standard 
breed having special peculiarities, the chief of which is a 
bluish tinge in the skin and of the face and ears, sometimes 
extending all over the body, and being more marked on the 
bare and hairy parts. It is mostly used for its lambs, which 
are marketed when a year old and the mutton of which Is 
of excellent quality. It is used mostly for crossing with the 
black-faced breeds, the peculiar tinge of the skin being 
thought to throw lambs more like the rams, and being larger 
and of excellent fattening disposition they are found more 




WENSLEYDALE RAM, TEN YEARS OLD. 

profitable than the smaller pure, black-faces. It is valued 
for its fleece which has a peculiar curl, called pirls, these 
being really twists of a corkscrew shape, and which in manu- 
facturing tend to felt in the goods, giving a very firm and 
tough cloth used for the hardest wear. The fieece is rather 
open, long in staple, and wastes but little as compared with 
the fleece of other sheep in the scouring. This peculiarity of 
the fleece is extended over the whole of the body, including 
the head and between the eyes and round the ears; the belly 
is well covered, as well as the scrotum and down the legs, 
with downy wool. There is a conspicuous absence of hair 
in the fleece, which is considered as an objectionable feature 
by the breeders. 

The head is of good size, indicating a strong constitution, 
and is carried high on a strong neck, giving the sheep a 



83 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

much favored style and an attractive appearance. The nose 
is wide, the bacli of the head is flat, the ears are large and 
prominent. The carcass is noted for its evenness and the 
absence of patches of fat, the meat being well mingled with 
fat all through rather than on the outside of the carcass. 
While it is somewhat slower in maturing and in taking on 
fat than the Leicester, it is thought to be hardier in consti- 
tution, and in its active disposition, being, as w^e should say, 
a far better rustler, and thus more able to withstand the 
ordinary hardships of outdoor winter keeping. It is thus of 
value for crossing on tlie common range flocks as well as for 
open grazing on farms. 

THE MOUNTAIN BREEDS. 

The Cheviot is the principal breed of this class, and the 
more interesting to the American shepherd, as it is already 
introduced on this side of the Atlantic, and has made a place 
for itself in which it has proved to be a valuable breed for 
farm use as well as for crossing on our native stock. We 
have an association of breeders of this sheep who deserve 
credit for their enterprise in this direction. 

It is named from the Cheviot hills, a range of low moun- 
tains on the border of England and Scotland, once, on a time, 
the scenes of continued strife between what might have been 
called in our parlance border ruffians, who durltag the old 
wars between England and Scotland made these noted hills 
the scenes of midnight forays, by w^hat were then called the 
cattle lifters. Then every shepherd's hooise was his castle, 
in which- always armed— he was prepared to defend his 
herds and flocks from the invaders from both sides. At the 
present time these sheep are scattered all over the green 
hills of Scotland, and with the Black-faced Highland sheep 
make up the great majority of the flocks. The author takes 
a deeper interest in this breed, possibly, as he imported some 
of them some few years ago for his farm in the mountains 
of North Carolina, where they succeeded admirably, and the 
cross of this breed on the native sheep of this district is yet 
apparent in the larger build, finer mutton character, and the 
largely increased fleece of wool, admirably adapted to the 
home manufacture of the popular jeans. 

The special marks of this breed are the short, hard, pure 



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84 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

white hair covering tlie face, extending over the ears and be- 
hind the head; rudimentary horns, which are sometimes 
loose and mere appendages of the sliin, a prominent Roman 
nose, blacli nostrils and bright full black eyes. The wool is 
moderately long, straight and free from kemp (or the short 
coarse hairs which go by this name), and covers well all 
parts of the body, the belly, breast, and legs down to the 
hocks. The tail is naturally long and rough, protecting the 
udders of the ewes, and not objectionable when the sheep 
are kept on pasture and not fed on turnips, rape, or other 
laxative food. The shoulders are high. The ewes are ex- 
cellent milkers and good mothers, losing few lambs, even 
when unattended by the shepherd. They are docile and not 
given to straying, even in the late season Avheu sheep, by 
long inherited disposition to wander, are most inclined to 
stray. 

It is the custom with the Cheviot shepherds to cross the 
ewes with Leicester, Lincoln, or Wensleydale rams; the 
produce are known as Leicester or half-bred lambs, and are 
popular in the markets at twelve months old when they w'll 
weigh sixteen to eighteen pounds to the quarter. The flesh 
of these half-breds is not so fat and is better considered by 
the butchers than that of the pure Leicester. 

This breed is kept in the States of New York, Pennsvl- 
vania, Indiana, Iowa and North Carolina, and in these 
wjdely different and distant localities all do well. 

The fleece weighs five to seven pounds in the ewes, and 
a half more in the rams. The ewes imported by the author 
weighed 170 lbs, and the ram, two years old, 270 lbs. 

THE BLACK-FACED HIGHLAND. 

This breed is smaller than the Cheviot, and thrives well 
on scant pastures, or the rough herbage of mountainsi. It 
is originally a forest sheep, having been kept in Ettrick For- 
est from long time baclv. It is now the principal sheep of the 
Scottish Highlands, where it is kept in large flocks, both for 
its mutton and its fleece. The mutton is of the finest quality, 
exceeded in this respect by but one other sheep— the small 
Welsh mountain breed—which furnishes meat of such fine 
texture and flavor as to be kept for sale mostly in the fancy 
grocery shops of London and other of the largest English 




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86 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

cities. Its fleece is coarse and weighs only about four to 
five pounds, being of the class known as carpet wools. 

The marks of this sheep are black or mottled face and 
legs; dun or broiwn patches are considered objectionable as 
indication of impure blood and a less hardy constitution. 
The nose is strong and prominent, but not so much arched as 
that of the Cheviot; the nostrils are black and wide. The 
horns of the rams are large and heavy, coming out level 
with the top of the head, and not joining each other at the 
base. They have one to two spiral turns as the age may be, 
the curl being in a forward direction, but not protruding 
towards the face. The ewe has small thin flattened horns 
not spirally twisted. The ears are short and smad. The 
back is broad all over from the shoulder to the rump. The 
tail is naturally short and is not cut. A wether fat from 
pasture and three years old is considered the flnest of all 
mutton, the quarter weighing 16 to 18 lbs. 

Its constitution is exceedingly hardy while on its moun- 
tain pastures, where foot rot never occurs; but one fault 
with this breed is that the wearing down of the hoof on its 
rocky home has so increased the natural growth of horn that 
when the sheep is moved to low land farms the foot becomes 
soft and is addicted to foot rot. This fact should be consid- 
ered by our shepherds, who might neglect this necessity 
for paring the hoofs and so lead to disease in the flock. 

A few years ago the author found some of these sheep 
on an Illinois farm, where it seemed at first thought to be as 
much out of place as a codfish from the ocean. But so far 
as could be learned the flock had thrived, and if it could so 
far become acclimated to its new surroundings there, it 
would certainly be a welcome addition to our stock. On the 
mountains there is no question of its success, but the coarse, 
light fleece might stand in the waj'^ of its profitable herding. 
American fiocks will scarcely pay to rear for wool alone, un- 
less this is of the highest value, but with valuable mutton, 
as this breed yields, the cheaper wool might not be any in- 
superable objection to it, if the market could be found for 
the mutton. The hardiness of the breed, however, makes it 
a subject for due consideration as to the value of the breed 
for crossing. 



88 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

THE WELSH MOUNTAIN. 

Tliis breed is scarcely wortby of notice were it not for its 
fine mutton. It is a small, restless, exceedingly active sheep, 
white-faced, with a carcass yielding a quarter of twelve 
pounds or less, but of such tendeiiness of flesh and high 
agreeable flavor, equal to that of venison, and which brings 
in the shops of the English cities as much as a dollai- a 
pound at the Christmas holidays, and half as much at other 
seasons. Its fleece is short but fine, and makes the fine, 
liighly considered V>'elsh flannels, of which when dyed 
scarlet the Welsh women make their cloaks. A somewhat 
ludicrous history is attached to the habit of the Welsh ladles 
of wearing this kind of outer dress. When the French fleet, 
about a century ago, landed some soldiers to make a raid 
on the Welsh coast, the ladies were curious to get a view of 
the hostile strangers, and a crowd of them standing on a hill 
were seen by the enemy, who thought them a detachment of 
soldiers of the English army in their usual red coats. The 
enemy at once fled back to their ships and hastened home, 
supposing their intended raid had been made knowru 

This sheep is an example of the very certain fact that 
the tenderness and flavor of the food gives the high flavor 
to the meat, a fact which is not believed by some, but which 
is certainly supported by similar evidence other than this, 
and is illustrated in the clearest manner to the expert shep- 
herd, who knows how the pastures make the mutton as well 
as differentiate the character of the sheep. 

THE LEICESTER. 

There is somewhat of a misundersta^nding to-day as 
to what the Leicester breed really is. There was an old Lei- 
cester breed existing, which was a large coarse sheep with 
a heavy fleece and a fairly good disposition to feed and 
fatten, which a noted breeder of the name of Bakewell, who 
was interested in breeding the Shorthorn cattle, took up, 
and began a course of improvement by which his name has 
become famous among sheep breeders. He in course of time 
made of it what was known as the Dishley (from the name 
of Mr. Bakewell's home) or the new Leicester breed. The 
effect of Mr. Bakewell's efforts in this direction was to pro- 
duce the most profitable sheep of the time, a masterpiece of 



THE LEICESTER. * Si) 

breeding, and of skill in selection of materials first. The new- 
breed was marked by early maturity, a great disposition lo 
fatten, a carcass which, for its reduced size, had greater 
value than the previously larger but coarser animal; a cor- 
responding diminution of offal; and the largest return for the 
food consumed than that of any other existing breed of 
sheep. 

Mr. Bakewell made a profound secret of his methods of 
procedure, and although well watched by those interested 
in knowing his secret, so successfully guarded it that to this 
day very little is known of it. One thing, going to show the 
extent of his experiments, was discovered by one of his com- 
petitors in former work in improving the Shorthorn cattle, 
which was that Mr. Bakewell had a remarkably fine black 
ram in his stables, which was supposed to have been used in 
this improvement of his favorite sheep, and it is to this rani 
that is attributed the occasional black spots which are some- 
times still found on the best bred Leicesters. Indeed this 
mark Is thought to be an indication of strict purity in the 
sheep that have descended from the original flock of Bake 
well. 

It was well known that Mr. Bakewell was not particular 
as to the means he used so that the result suited his purpose. 
It is known that the best specimens of the old breed were 
secured as the foundation for his work, and that while the 
results were far beyond Avhat might have been expected, yet 
they were sufficient to establish a remarkable improvement 
in the old breed and make of the new breed the best sheep 
then existing. 

It had its faults, however. These were want of constitu 
tion, sterility, and inferiority of fleece. These have been 
amended by Mr. Bakewell's successors in the same line, by 
most careful selection of rams closely bred from the most 
satisfactoi-y specimens of the improved flocks. And while, 
as the case uow^ stands, there has been no breed of long 
wools that has not been improved by a cross of the new 
Leicesters, yet this breed with its most excellent qunlificn- 
tions has nothing to gain outside of itself, and have only 
been retained by preserving this breed pure and unmixed. 

The special points of the Leicester are as follows: 

The head is hornless, long, smaall, tapering to the muzzle. 



90. THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

and carried high, projecting forwards horizontally. The 
eyes are prominent, with a quiet, docile expression. The ears 
are thin, rather long, and directed backwards. The neck is 
full and broad at the chest, gradually tapering to the head, 
and fine at the junction with the head. The back forms a 
horizontal line from the rump to the head. The breast is 
broad and full. The shoulders broad and round, without 
any uneven or angular formation anywhere. The forearm 
is fleshy down to the knee, the bones are small, the legs 
starding far apart, no loose skin is visible on them, and are 
mostly bare of wool. The chest is deep, the barrel round, 
the ribs spring well arched from the back, and the carcass 
diminishes evenly from the rump forwards. The pelt is 
thin, soft, and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of 
fine white wool, finer in fiber than any other of the long 
wool breeds. Every one of these fine points in a sheep of 
surpassing excellence, it is known, was a subject of study 
by Mr. Bakewell. and was carried through by the choice of 
any material that offered itself to this great master of 
breeding. 

Later breeders have followed in these lines, with the re- 
sult that the modern Leicester is a. model sheep, a subject 
for the naturalist and artist to admire, and for the shep- 
herd to make his money out of. This has been used in the 
refinement of almost every other modern breed, but still 
something is left for the modern breeder to study over and 
endeavor to improve. 

These are a certain delicacy of constitution, want of 
sufficient hardiness to withstand exposure, Inferior ability to 
nurse the lambs. There are, however, many modern breeders 
of these sheep who have understood this fact, and their 
efforts are constantly directed to improve on these points, 
with so far substantial success. 

The chief value of the breed doubtless lies in the ability 
to improve others on which the rams are crossed, and the 
grades of it are quite doubled in value by the first cross. 
It is the great value of the pure breeds like this to improve 
inferior sheep, and thus the special breeder is able to per- 
form an invaluable service in affording the opportunities to 
the ordinary shepherd. This indeed applies to every pure 
breed of sheep, and on account of the vast labor and the con- 



OTHlOll VAKIl^yriES OI'' SIIKKI'. 01 

suiiimate skill iietMU'tl to bivod siuli slico]) us this, the shep- 
herd will never be able to dispense with the services of the 
profevssional breeder. Of course the grades are the great 
source of supply of sheep for marlvet and for wool, and these 
depend on the infusion of pure blood supplIcMl by the profes- 
sional breeders through their fine rams, 

THE BORDER LEICESTER. 

We sometimes hear or read of the Border Leicesters, and 
some are at a loss to know what kind of sheep this may be. 
It is at the present time so closely related and similar to 
the Leicester that it is recognized as such, and no distinc- 
tion is made as to the special points of each of the two. it 
is now a class of this breed which is larger in size, not so 
refined in form, has a somewhat longer and not so fine a 
fleece. It was formed through a CotsAvold cross on the im- 
proved Leicesters of Bakewell. It is regarded by some breed- 
ers as the finest of this breed, and is preferred for crossing 
on the common mixed varieties of the common sheep, when 
size and weight of fleece are desired. Of this cross it is com- 
mon to rear lambs which make twenty to twenty-five pounds 
to the quarter at fifteen months old and after good feeding. 

OTHER VARIETIES OF SHEEP. 
Spain has about thirty million sheep of which the most 
are Merinos. There the ancient fashion of migrating twice a 
year from the low pastures in the Spring to the mountain 
ra.nges in the Fall still exists. This habit is controlle-l by 
special laws by w^hich the sheep have a right of w^ay on the 
public roads in preference to other travelers, and a. right of 
free pasture on the roadsides for two hundred feet on each 
hand. The herds move under the strict discipline of a leader 
known as a mayoral, under whose charge there are ten thou- 
sand sheep in the drove. The drove is divided into sections 
of one thousand sheep, over which a capitaz takes charge. 
A requisite number of shepherds and dogs accompany the 
drove and stay with the sheep until the season closes, when 
the flocks are returned to their former ranges. The shep- 
herds are much like those of the French Llandes. wearing 
jackets of raw sheepskin with the w^ool outside and raw- 
hide breeches. The jackets are mere skins without sleeves 
and wrapped around the body. 



92 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

Spain exports annually about nine million pounds of 
wool. It is a matter of history that countries which export 
wool are proportionately deficient in civilization, as may be 
easily thought when we realize the fact that we import about 
as much as our whole product, and France imports a large 
quantity to supply its population with the necessities of a 
high civilization. 




SHEEP OF THE PYRENEES. 

Germany has twenty-eight million sheep, some parts of 
it exceeding the average number per square mile existing in 
Great Britain, viz., three hundred. It imports a large quantity 
of wool foil' its extensive manufactures. The system of herd- 
ing sheep oai the poor la.nd only has the effect of seriously cur- 
tailing the value of this interest, and the native grown wool is 
of the inferior qualities. But many of the rich land owners 
possess valuable flocks, especially of the small breeds of 
Merinos whose fleeces are exceedingly fine but of light 
weight. 

Italy still preserves the ancient fashion of migratory 
flocks; the sheep so kept are of the Merino variety, of which 
the largest number make up a majority of the seven million 
possessed by this nation. In the mountains there are a 



OTHER VARIETIES OF SHEEP. 



9:] 



large number of sheep having black faces much similar to 
the flocks of the Scotch Highlands. In Piedmont a race of 
sheep is kept for the milk. These sheep have hanging ears, 
a high arched nose, long bare legs, and bodies with scant 




GIBRALTER AND EAST INDIAN SHEEP. 

fleeces. Darwin considered the pendant ears of these and 
other similar races as a mark of long domestication, as it 
prevails among the oldest established breeds in those coun- 
tries in which no modern improvement has been made. The 
illustration here given of a race of East Indian sheep which 
is wholly black, and of a pair of sheep from Gibraltar in the 




THIBET SHEEP 

southwest corner of Spain, shows the prevalence in these 
of the drooping ears. The same Is shown by the Thibit 
sheep. 

A curiosity among sheep is the fat-tailed sheep of An- 
gola, and some localities in Asia. The t^l consists of a curi- 
ous lump of fat on an elongated tail containing as many as 
twenty vertabrae. The tail being considered as a delicacy, is 



94 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

generally carefully guarded against injury by being supplied 
with a sort of truck which is drawn about by the animal as 
it moves. A sheep of this kind bred in Astrachan has black 
fine frizzled wool, and the skins are highly valued as a fur 
for the ornament of cloaks and especially for the collars, 
and a strip down each side of the front and for the cuffs. 

The Tunis sh€ep has been introduced here from its Afri- 
can home, and like all other immigrants is standing on its 
merits as a valuable acquisition to our varieties. For some 
time it strove with its new surroundings, on the quite differ- 
ent conditions here from which it had been used to in its 
native African home, where it was a habitant of tlie moun- 




FAT TAIL SHEEP. 



tain districts of that part of the dark continent lying to the 
East of Algeria. Thus Mr. Kandall— generally well in- 
formed—made the mistake of asserting that this sheep had 
become extinct, the fact being that its hardy constitution 
enabled it to overcome difficulties of acclimatation, and it 
still remains as one of our adopted races and is especially 
now an American sheep. 

Its origin is kindly described by Mr. Rountree, of Indi- 
ana, who is now the owner of the largest flock in the United 
States. Mr. Rountree gives the following particulars of 
the American history of this breed: 

"It was introduced here by General Eaton, our Consul 
at Tunis, who procured a small flock from the Bey and 
shipped them to Pennsylvania where they came under the 
care of Judge Peters of Belmcmt, near Philadelphia, The 




<x> 
n is 

:^ o 



96 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

sole survivors of the voyage— one pair — became tlie progeni- 
tors of a fine fiocli of pure blood, tbe last lamb being brought 
by a ewe of the age of sixteen years, when the only original 
pair fell victims to a prowling cur. Mr. Peters bred these 
sheep for twenty years, during w^hich time several flocks 
were sent to Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas, where 
they were bred with much success until the war of 1861. 
when, with other fine flocks in the South, these sheep were 
practically exterminated, a small remnant only being pre- 
served pure. These few sheep, however, increased in num- 
ber and specimens of them were exhibited at the World's 
Fair at Chicago, in 1893. A Mr. Guilliams, of Indiana, pur- 
chased four of them from the breeder at Columbia, S. C, 
and is now breeding them successfully, Mr. Rountree on 
seeing these sheep went to South Carolina and found only 
twenty-five of them in existence. Of these he procured ten, 
and has, as the descendants of these, the largest pure flock in 
America. 

"These sheep are noted for their early maturity, their pro- 
lificacy (rearing two sets of lambs in the year), and yield- 
ing a fine and long staple of w^ool. The cross of the rams on 
our mutton breeds yields an improved fleece and excellent 
mutton. The mutton of the pure sheep has always been 
noted for its fine quality, and thus the cross-bred produce is 
valuable on this account, as well as for the fleece, 

"The ewes are good mothers, the lambs have been made 
to weigh seventy pounds at the age of eighty days. This breed 
is hardy and of sound constitution, the rams weigh when ma- 
ture two hundred pounds and the ewes up to a hundred and 
sixty. The cross of the Tunis and Merino makes an excel- 
lent sheep for every purpose. An association of breeders 
has been organized, with its headquarters at Fincastle, Ind., 
and a herd book is regularly published." 

OTHER WOOL BEARING ANIMALS THAN SHEEP. 

Wool is not the sole product of sheep only. There are 
several related species of the genus, whi>ch may ^-^ included 
in the list of wool bearers, the fleeces of which coming into 
competition with the sheep, are of interest to the shepherd. 
Of these related species of this genus of the Camelidae. 
there are the Llama, the Vicuna, the Guanaco, and the Al- 
paca, all natives of the high mountain region of South 



OTHER WOOL BEARING ANIMALS. 97 

America, in Bolivia aud Peru mostly; and some of the j^oals, 
especially tliat known as the Cashmere which is noted for its 
exquisitely fine and soft wool, and the Angora equally noted 
for its long silky fleece. 

The Alpaca became noted some years ago through the 
enterprise of Mr. Titus Salt, afterwards made Kuight under 
the title of Sir Titus, by the Queen of England, in recogni- 
tion aud reward for his public service in inaugurating a 
valuable industry in the manufacture of the hair or wool of 
the Alpaca. This gave rise to a considerable manufacturing 
town in Yorkshire, England, where the chief manufacturing 
industry is based on wool, of which the poipulation at 
once sprang to several thousand on the establisliment of 
Saltaire, as the town of Mr. Salt's creation was well named. 

This animal has been introduced into various countries 
with the intention to acclimate it, but in every instance these 
attempts have failed. A few of them were carried into 
Australia, but— as might be easily thought— with disastrous 
failure on account of the exceedingly different climate and 
general lenvironments. The dvj climate of that country being 
so different from the elevated locality to which this ani- 
mal is naturally suited, it might have been a foregone con- 
clusion that the attempt would be a failure. It has been 
introduced into France with the same negative result, and 
the only specimens living, in any foreign country, are those 
kept in collections of t\ ild animals under special care and 
culture. Doubtless it might be different in our Pacific coast 
districts, and the newer states and territories on the South- 
west, where there are elevated ranges and a similar climate 
more in accordance with the natural habits of this animal. 

This of course applies to the other races of this interest- 
ing genus, the only related species existing in the w^orld, 
Doubtless there is a profitable field for enterprise in the at- 
tempt to naturalize all these members of this race of most 
useful animals, valuable as beasts of burden, as is its rela- 
tive the camel, well called the ship of the desert. For this 
race is used to a dry climate, and has been used for packing 
ores from the mines near the tops of the Andes over the 
roughest roads, quite impassable for other bensts, and is 
able to carrj' loads of 150 to 200 lbs. with ease. As well as 



98 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP, 

for tiliis use it affoncls a valuablo Iloece. aud its flesh is a very 
desirable ailditiou to our usual bill of fare. 

HINTS FOR YQUNG SHEPHERDS. 

Que Should always begiu any business i-arefully aud 
cautiously, aud learn as much of it as possible before 
he ventures into it. 

The keeping of siheep is a business which needs this 
caution more than any other part of farming. 

The s/lieep is not a hardy animal, and is exposed to 
so many risks that one should know beforehand as much 
as possible about it. 

There is no more useful, accurate and easily under- 
stood a'uthority and text book about sheep 'tilian Stewart's 
Domestic Sheep. And to study this book before venturing 
is an absolute necessity for success. Then read this book 
carefully, making notes of all important point ; which 
seem to be most -necessary to keep in mind. 

iSeHect that breed of siheep to which you take a fancy, 
for what one admires or loves the most, he will give his 
mind .to the most. 

It "v\ill 'be safest to ibegin with a few of the common 
s'heep for the first year, and then rear the lambs, and 
the next year get sucih a ram as you tliiuk you would 
like the best. 

Get a ram two years old next spring. Get a good 
one. Never mind a few dollars in the cost of it. Ten good 
lainbs will pay all the cost of as good a ra.m as you wish 
fo ihave. 

You canH" ,go wrong on any breed, if it is only a 
good animal, well bred and liealthy. 

Get no sheep over or tinder three years. Young ewes 
need better care than a beginner can give. 

You will find all necessary information in the book 
mentioned to detect the precise age of the sheep you are 
buying. 

Make friends with your s'heep. "Tlie good shepherd 
loves iliis sheep and they follow him," But they wont 
foUlow any one who ill uses them, 



HINTS FOR YOUNG SHEPHERDS. 99 

A ihaudful of coru will soon make up a good a<-(iuaiu- 
tauce betwecu thy slieci) aud Uiuir > ilu^plierd 

Dou't co'Utiue your sheep too closely. Don't put lli('ui 
iu eoutiuement, but give tilieui au open shed in which 
they may go as they wish, in or out. They will know 
enou^i to go it wheu it rains, whieh is -mor.* than .some 
people do. 

Above all tilings keep tiheir jackets dry. A wet jacket 
makes the sheep feel -cold any time. A dwy one is always 
warm and eoiufortable. Above -all things keep ymw sheep 
clean. There is no reason why a sheep pen should make 
one sneeze \^iheii he goes into it. Dry litter and plenty 
of it, will keep the floor from smelling although the ma- 
nure may lie in it all the winter. And this is advisable. 

Feed regularly, at the same hour every day. Feed 
fhree times. Give good -hay and half the allowance of 
grain in the morning. Sweet oat straw 'or corn fodder 
will do for noon and the evening feed the same as the 
morning. Fill the rack with sweet oat straw at nig'ht. 
Wihat is not eaten will make litter. One pint of gi-ain 
of mixed corn and oats is enougih for one day of grain 
food. 

Don't let the sheep drink from an icy 'trough. Give 
fresh water from a w^ell twice a day, and as soon as the 
sbeep have drank turn over the trough to avoid it filling 
wiijh snow. 

If you ever find the sheep eating snow go back of 
the barn and kick yourself. You will well d©seiwe it. for 
this is a mistake not to be forgiven. Make a note of this 
in the right side of your head. 

Examine ithe sbeep frequently for ticks. A smaJl flock 
may be easily cleared of ticks by hand picking them. Oth- 
erwise to pour butter milk down tlie sides from the mid- 
dle of the back will kill the ticks. 

If anything w^orse t;han ticks ails tlie skin write at 
once to the editor of the American Sheep Breeder, and 
get advice about it. If there are red Sipot^ on the skin 
or scabs of any kind don't lose time but get advice about 
ft at once. You will find what to do in the book men- 
tioned 



100 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Give the sheep all tthe salt they will <iat, 'twice a 
Iweek. A good piaiu is to get a barrels 'Of rock salt and 
put omt a lump of it or two where the sheep can get at it. 

Take good care of the ewes that are carrying lambs. 
Don't llet tlheim get cro.wd'ed or clhased, or puncihed by 
cows, and don't let them get any moldy stuir to eat, 
not simutty corn fodder or oat straw. Otherwise a lamb 
or a few of *h©m may be lost. 

Don't waste food. Give no more than is eaten up 
without waste. This need not be applied io the straw; 
this is partly intended for litter. 

The best signs lof healtih are a bright eye, a clean dry 
nose, and a good appetite. When the nose is running 
consult your book, the Domestic Slieep. 

Keep on ihand a supply of an equal mixture of ground 
ginger, gentian and sulphate of iron, and when tlie slieep's 
noses are not clean give each one a level teaspoonfu.1 of 
it in Ihalf a pint of oatmeal gruel, daily for a week. It 
is good to give weekly to the whole flock in some bran. 

Don't try to .have lambs before April. Any earlier than 
this is not safe except for old experienced shepiherds. It 
is not easy for O'ne .not experienced to rear winter lamb 5. 

When yo'ur .sheep are nibbling at their sides, examine 
them well. There is something wrong, also often ex- 
amine the feet. 

Preserve the fleece from dust or litter from the floor 
overhead. Keep the wool as clean as possible. Remove 
the locks of dirty wool from beihind the sheep, and this 
especially applies to the ewes, wihen the lambs come. 

Be patient, kind, watchful, attentive, prompt, thought- 
ful, and above all other (things, be regular to the hour 
in feeding 'and watering. 'Sheep don't, 'as a rule, carry 
watc'hes, yet they are watdhful, anil know the time of 
the day, and if they are not attended to they will let 
you kno'W by their bleating. Don't wait for this, set your 
times; the sheep will soon know them; and be particular 
to be on time every time. A fretful sheep will soon be 
a sick one, -and a sick one is apt to be a dead one in a 
short time. Keep your isTieep happy and tihey will make 
you happy. 




HAND POWER SHEEP SHEARING MACHINE. 
Manufactured bv the Flexible Shaft Co., Chicago, 111. 



SPANISH MERINO RAM, IMPORTED AT COMMENCEMENT 19th CENTURY, 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 

Breeding of any of our domestic animals is an art based 
on strictly scientific principles. It may be thought that it 
is an art only, and the mere exercise of the results of experi- 
ence, without any thought of the principles involved in the 
reproduction of the animals under the control of mankind. 
But in truth it is the application of experience to any skilled 
purpose first studying the reasons v/hy this or that result 
should be so, that all scientific knowledge consists. This 
word, science, is not generally understood as to its strict 
meaning. It is derived from scio (a Latin word), meaning to 
know. So that we may say in short, that science is merely 
accurate knowledge. It is not in any sense or in fact, sup- 
positions or beliefs; but the knowledge c' the actual and 
accurate reasons why things are thus or so, and this knowd- 
edge applied to the common practice of human life and 
work, always brings results precisely the same under like 
conditions. That the results reached by breeders of the do- 
mestic animals, or in the culture of plants, which possess 
a strict analogy with animals being sometimes disappointing 
and fruitless, so far as expectations go, is by no means any 
contradiction of these facts, but simply due to the imperfect 
knowledge possessed by breeders of the materials they are 
working v.ith. And every mistake, or unexpected result, only 
goes to add to the stock of accurate knowledge which is the 
essence and fundamental principle of science. 

Science is the accumulated results of work, experiment, 
and experience. Everything, less or more than this, is 
mere theory; and this is one of the materials which the 
scientific student works with, in the course of experiment 
and practical application of the knowledge gained inch by 
inch, as it were, until some exact results are reached, and 
these then become really scientific principles. 



104 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

UnderstaudiDg this, we are tbeu prepared to study tlie 
history aud the principles, as far as these have beeu ac- 
curately determined, of the breeding of sheep. 

What is a breed? Some think it is nothing more or less 
than a distinct variety of any of the domesticated animals, 
differentiated from all others by certain marks and types, 
which are accurately reproduced by the animals so specially 
different from all others than their own ancestors and prog- 
eny. In short it is a class of animals which reproduce their 
kind with a certain degree of similarity in the most impor- 
tant features. Thus, those believing this to be the true 
meaning of the term breed, do not include among the breeds 
any of tlie wild animals, and only the domesticated kinds. 
Without discussing this questionable point, we only here 
remark that our understanding of the matter is, that any 
distinct class of animals existing, whether wild or domes- 
ticated, that reproduces itself with exactness of form, 
color, or habit of life, is a breed. For, where have 
we among our domestic animals, any that exhibit the 
distinctive habit O'f a breed, better or more strictly 
than the wild animals — the buffalo, or the antelope, 
or the deer, or the various wild birds; or what 
race of sheep retains its constant form and habits more 
exactly than the wild big-horn, or those other races of undo- 
mesticated sheep of which it is the belief of every scientific 
naturalist our modern breeds are the progeny. And these 
habits and special peculiarities every breeder of sheep con- 
siders and understands; and works under this principle of 
perpetuating these characteristics in his flocks. 

When the first shepherd midertook to reclaim the wiM 
race, and subject them to his use for the valued skins, or 
fleece, or the meat for his food, we may be sure he began 
by selecting those which came nearest his idea of the great 
est usefulness. Thus the improvement of the sheep dates 
back to the remotest antiquity, long before there are any 
historic records, and the first knowledge we have of the re- 
sults of this selection and special variation by breeding, 
based on this selection, is gained from the remains of the 
bones of the domesticated sheep discovered from time to 
time in the ancient caves, and the beds of lakes, whore 
primogenlal mankind lived and died, and left the remains 



SCIENCE ANI> ART OF BREEDING. 



105 



of their work as a study for us to learu the special habits of 
those aboriginal parents of the human race. The facts we 
learn in this and other ways all go to prove that the im- 
proveinent of the sheep dates) back to uidaiowu centuries, 
thousands of years, and since that ancient time we have the 
best reasons to know that there have been constant and sue 
eessful attempts to improve the race of domesticated sheep, 
by selection and breeding the selected animals, so selected 
for their l)etter form, more valued fleece, and general im- 
proved habits and conditions. And thus we have to-day dis- 
tinct types of sheep varying as to locality, climate, and the 
kind of people who bred and reared them. And we may be 




ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 



sm-e that this process of improvement began with the most 
ancient races of mankind, and that these ancient, even pre- 
historic shepherds, knew something about the art of breeding, 
and so necessarily something of the science, as we distin- 
guish it, of breeding sheep. We have an example of this 
fact in the shrcA^d conduct of one of the earliest recorded 
breeders, Jacob, who kept his father-in-law's flc-cks in that 
great pastoral region known as Midian, who by devices, 
doubtless well known to the sliepherds of those days, so in- 
fluenced the nervous functions of the ewes, as to bring 
lambs marked in a peculiar way by which ho secured a 
questionable advantage over his old father-in-law. Wo can- 
not doubt that these old shepherds knew a good deal about 



106 THE DOMESTIC. SHEEP. 

brecdiiig sheep, aud tlieir acuteiiess iu this way doubtless 
advanced the value of the flocks very largely. 

Breeding is the art of iufluenciug the character of any 
animal by changing the conditions of life, and regulating the 
reproduction by selection of individuals, as well as by inten- 
sifying by the best methods of feeding all the natural pro- 
clivities. Thus there must be an adequate foundation to 
begin with; a basis to stand upon; and in selecting this 
starting point the natural or acquired ability of the breeder 
plays a most important part. Thus we may say that there 
are three general principles or laws by Avhich the art of 
breeding is made practical. These are heredity, selection 
and variability. 

Heredity is a special function of all animals, and the 
common maxim of the breeder, that, "like produces like," 
is to be taken as the starting point. The reproductive 
process is largely influenced by what may be said to be a 
nervous force, so far as regards animals whose functions 
are all controlled by the nervous system. It is different in 
the lower forms of life, as in those species which reproduce 
by a simple process of division, or as it is commonly termed, 
fission, or separating into two parts, each precisely alike. 
This is the principle on which all the lower organisms repro- 
duce themselves. A complete organism simply produces a 
dividing membrane, which when complete forms one of the 
wall^ of each of the two parts into which it separates, and 
the two, then completed forms, again repeat the process, 
thus prolonging the life of the race indefinitely. In this in- 
stance heredity is perfect and paramount, and each new 
form is precisely like the parent of it. It is the same with 
those plants that grow from slips or cuttings, or from 
tubers, which are in fact a part of the plant itself. And yet 
in these there is frequent variation as in the potato, or the 
dahlia, which as it is termed, sports and varies from the 
original. But in animals, while there is a process extremely 
like the fission or duplication of the lower organisms, yet the 
action and influences of the nervous forces come in play, 
and affect the fetus in its interuterine growth, and thus we 
have variations in animal reproduction which, at the same 
time, interfere with or aid the efforts of the breeder, giving 
him in the latter instances a new departure which he is often 



SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 107 

ablu to use as the basis of improvement. The foree of iu- 
herituiice, however, is the main point for the breeder to eon 
sicler and turn to his advantage, and it is not to be ovei 
looked in the study of tliis important part of this subject. As 
has been remarked by Mr. Darwin: "It is hardly possible, 
within moderate bounds, to impress on those who have not 
fully studied this subject, the full couvictiou and impression 
of the force of inheritance, which is slowly but surely ac- 
quired by rearing animals by the study of the various treat- 
ises which have been published on the subject of breedin.u; 
of our domestic animals, or by conversation with experi- 
enced breeders."" 

But in this regard we must give due force to that pe- 
culiarity existing in all animals, which is known as atavism, 
or going back, and by which, after all the work of a breeder, 
will tend to interfere with his reasonable expectations by the 
appearance of long back inherited peculiarities by which 
new difficulties are thrown in the way of expected progress. 
And not only are forms and dispositions thus inherited from 
ancestors, long back removed, but the work of the breeder 
is still further complicated by the reappearance of undesira- 
ble points which have been thought to have been bred out. 
And, again, the strangest irregularities are thus produced 
not only by inheritance, but by accidental peculiarities whicb. 
arise through the action of unexpected events on the nervous 
system of the female animal. For as Jacob produced sti-eaked 
and spotted progeny from his sheep and goats, by the use 
of peeled willow branches, and as we read the sheep were 
streaked and spotted, and had brown faces, in consequence 
of the effect of these unusual appearances placed before 
them at the coupling time, so similar effects may be pro- 
duced by we know not what accidents, to divert the ex- 
pectations and purposes of the breeder. We know the very 
great strength of inherited tendency to diseases, and how tlie 
produce of unsound animals, even to the distortion of the 
joints and limbs, is likely to be affected in a similar way. 
Thus both for good or ill, the breeder must take into account 
these natural transmissions of defects or inherited peculiar- 
ities, and be prepared to meet them, and suffer disappoint- 
ments and delays, unless by the severest scrutiny he avoids 
all these risks. Indeed these conditlcns may be accepted as 



108 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

au unavoidable part of tbe practice oi breeding, to be guard- 
ed against with tbe utmost care. Tbis necessarily brings 
us to and leads on to tbe consideration of tbe second point 
under consideration wbicb is tbat of selection. 

If tbe breeder can always be sure of tbe full bistory of 
tbe animals be makes use of for tbe improvement of bis 
flock, tbere would be a more certain element in bis work. 
Tbis, bowever, is scarcely possible, unless tbe standard berd 
books used for tbis purpose were an exact record of tbe 
wbole life bistory of every animal entered tberein. Tbis is 
not supposable, for as tbe owner is tben to be tbe bistorian 
of bis animals be could not be expected to make any sucb 
possible fatal record againt tbem. So tbat after all, tbe 
breeder is to fall back on bis own judgment, and take tbe 
cbaucGS of success or defeat, partial or complete. And as 
be may lind tbe produce of tbe best selected animals may 
vary from bis desired standard, be must undo tbe work 
so far and begin again. Tbis illustrates tbe necessity of tbe 
full acquaintance of tbe breeder— tbe special breeder is bere 
referred to— witb' tbe bistory of tbe flock from wbicb he 
selects bis animals and by tbe exercise of good judgment, 
and witb a full knowledge of tbe source of tbe animals be se- 
lects from, take tbose only wbicb be may be sure will meet 
tbe ends be bas in view, as far as possible. 

Tbis selection, of course, can only be made by one wbo 
really knows wbat be wants; tbe ends be bas in view; 
tbe defects of bis own stock wbicb be desires to get rid of; 
and tbe special points wbicb be wisbes to develop in his 
own flock. In fact, it is as in all otlier business and profes- 
sions, one must have a full and accurate knowledge of wbat 
is going on in bis special line or pursuit. And after all there 
is something more than mere knowledge involved in tbis. 
l<^or we find many of tbe most successful breeders depend on 
an intuition— a natural instinct of the fitness of things on a 
first view— often more than on any method for which they 
can give a reason. Undoubtedly tbe breeder has what he 
needs fixed in bis mind, although he cannot express it in 
words, and w^ben the right animal is seen it appeals to this 
unspoken and unspeakable sense of fitness; and tbe selec- 
tion so made is generally tbe best for the purpose required. 

But tbis is not the work of a momentary impulse. Time is 



SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 109 

to be taken for thought aud comparisou before a selectiou is 
made. It may be, however, that oue siugle poiut is in view. 
This simplities the matter. Mr. Bakewell spent mouths in 
selecting a ram with the kiud of head he once wanted. And 
although there were undesirable points in other respects 
about the ram, yet he got the head, aud then went to work 
to breed out these by other selections. This takes time, but 
the fixing of a type is a work of time. The history <jf tlie 
breeding of our modern sheep is full of examples of this long 
life w'ork, and the best of the old breeders were never able 
to preserve strict uniformity in any breed. Two flocks of the 
New Leicester were started at the same time by two breed 
ers, and the flocks were kept quite distinct for fifty years. 
At the end of this period the two flocks were entirely differ- 
ent in type, and each had wholly lost the special characteris- 
tics of the original flock. Here is an instance of the effect 
of personality in the breeding. Tlie type desired — according 
to the fancy of the breeder— liad prevailed in each flock; 
and each had departed greatly from the type of the original 
flock from w^hich the tw^o sprang. Variation must have a 
distinct cause. Such a cause exists in the breeding of small 
flocks in each of which there has been special methods of 
selection of rams for breeding. It is impossible to maintain 
an invariable condition or habit of form, among many flocks, 
for the personality of the owner must inevitably appear in 
each one. Thus it is that breeders of any special class of sheep 
should frequently examine what their competitors are do- 
ing, so as to avoid any serious loss of uniformity of type in 
the breed. In this our herd books, and tlie annual exhibi- 
tions are extremely useful, and it is doubtless by means of 
these annual opportunities of exhibiting the skilled work of 
the breeders, all working towards a single standard of ex- 
cellence, that w'e shall be freed in a great measure from the 
risks and failures of the old breeders, who made their work 
a secret and each one of whom was working in ignorance 
of wiiat others w^ere doing. 

I'here cannot be a serious divergence of results when 
every skilled breeder is working with a portrait, as it were, 
of his desired sheep before his eyes, as is the x:ase with 
the standard before him and the actual sheep exhibited at 
the fairs. This modern improvement is the greatest security 



110 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

for tl'.3 breeders wlio liave the standard iu their mind, and 
must— for successful competition for the premiums— work in 
strict conformity with its requirements. 

Possibly the Germans have reached the high excellence 
of their best breeds of sheep by the happy thought of em- 
ploying experts for the selection of rams used for breeding. 
These expert judges travel through the country and visit the 
tloclvs of the breeders, and especially of the large estates of 
the weallliy proprietors. They advise the owners of the 
special points to be bred for in their flocks, and select those 
rams tlmt are the most desirable to preserve unity of type. 
The immense advantage of this is apparent at first thought. 
It gives to many the mind of one, and thus uniformity is 
gained, and once gained is preserved. This is valuable, to not 
only the special breeder, but to the mere wool producer whose 
income depends, not so much on the actual weight of his 
product, but of any special value it may have for the manu- 
facturer. We may come to this in time ourselves, and doubt- 
less find the advantage of it in the right selection of the rams 
for the wool grower, as well as the mutton producer. As the 
great majority of our flocks are Tow bred, or half bred, or 
not bred at all, there is unquestionably a vast improvement 
possible in the increase of the value of them, for all their 
products, including rams for the use of the ordinary shep- 
herd who is unable to breed his own, an unwise thing to do 
anyway, as may be exemplified by the example given above 
of the two flocks of pure Leicestcrs. As it is, there is too 
much of the uncertainty, if not ignorance, of the precise 
needs of the flockmaster; too much of the carelessness, and 
sometimes too much of the willfulness amon,g shepherds; 
which may be illustrated by the common adage relating to a 
person known as Dr. Fry, who was much disliked by some 
one, who gave his reason in this way: 

"I do not like you, Doctor Pry, 

I cannot tell the reason why; 

But I do not like you, Doctor Fry." 

For and against the sheep in its variations, many a 
shepherd may say the same of those he does not approve of, 
and yet for want of the accurate knowledge, which is noth-- 
ing move or less than the science of his profession, the shep» 



CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. Ill 

herd may lose great opportunities of impruving his liuck by 
missing the best medium for so donig. 

Among the most effective causes of variations we may 
mention the influence of climate, soils, and other intluences 
growing out of them. It cannot be doubted that the success 
of the American Merino has been largely due to the more 
suitable climate here, and as well to the soil of the localities 
where they have made the greatest success. It is the same 
with other localities. For instance, the high-bred horses 
nowhere do as well as in Kentucky, where the limestone sod. 
the moderate climate, and the bine grass pastures, all com- 
bine to give constitution and stamina, with the endurance 
owing to these which are secured nowhere else to the same 
degree In the w^orld. So the Kentucky Shorthorn cattle 
have excelled in every way their imported parents, and in re- 
gard to sheep, it is found everywhere, that the American 
Merino is the first of its class in the world. Wtith the same care 
and skill applied to other breeds, w^e may unfailingly expect 
to advance these breeds to a like high point, if only the same 
skill and good judgment are exercised in regard to them. 

Climate is one of the most effective intluences for good 
or evil on the sheep. While the sheep is a cosmopolitan, 
and thrives everywhere to the satisfaction of the shepherd, 
yet the most favorable influences in any new country must 
be secured for the iminediate success of introduced varieties 
of sheep. That the American climate (including Canada 
with the United States in this continental application) pos- 
sesses a special adaptation to breeding and keeping of sheep 
\rith entire and immediate success, is unquestionable. There 
are ample proofs of this in the history of every kind of sheep 
that has been imported and bred. The American Merino has 
found purchasers at the highest prices in competition witli 
the sheep of every other country in which the Merino is 
bred. The English breeds have prospered equally with our 
Merino, and there is no reason why every valuable breed of 
sheep, whether adapted to monntain^ or valley: the open 
range, or cultivated farm; the marshes, even; may not be- 
come a means for the profitable investment of capital, and 
an occupation for the labor of the shepherd, as well as for 
the manufacturing industry and the employment of labor in 
disposing of onv wool, 



112 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

The question of acclimatatiou has been settled, and the 
favorable iuti'ieuees of it on the various breeds of sheep, ex- 
isting anywhere, admit of no doubt whatever. It is, how- 
ever, a matter for the study of the breeder, lest he may make 
mistakes in trying to adopt the dilferent breeds to circum- 
stances of locality, climate, soil, and variety of culture that 
may not be the most suitable for some special needs of the 
shepherd. Every kind of climate is to be found, from the tem- 
perate regions to the semi-tropical; and the sheep has proved 
itself at home from the most northerly part of Canada to 
the warm Winterless regions of the South, for some special 
kind which may be best suited for the new home. 

But it must be well understood that the fixing 
of types suitable to varied conditions, is not the work 
of a year or a few years; but is to be the patient 
study and experiment of a lifetime. It is not in 
a haphazard way, either, that we can reach success. 
The sheep is an impressible animal, but equally apt 
to lose its temporary individuality. The whole ex- 
perience of a century of breeding has show^ed that types 
are still uncertain. In this regard acclimatatiou is a slow 
process, for it is not alwaj's that this, and the animal, may 
match immediately. The process of acclimatatiou goes by 
steps; each making a short progress; for the individual life 
is too short to wholly change, even a sheep, into a wholly 
new animal. History goes to show that this process is only 
developed slowly, for the constitution has to be changed to 
meet the new environments. And it has shown that the ma- 
jority of animals do not submit easily to changes of climate; 
some may; those which are readily impressed by their situa- 
tion will; but at the same time there are effects of climate 
which are not desirable, and these are to be overcome by the 
slow process of cultivating the variabilitj^ of the sheep, 
by due mixtures of new blood, which may require many 
years to become fullj^ acclimated. 

In the breeding of any of the domesticated animals, as 
of the dcimestication of any wild race, climate is to be 
seriously considered. Indeed, any violent change of con- 
dition is to be avoided, tmless by a process of crossing the 
new blood on sheep already habituated to their special en- 
vironments. Thus it may be wise to cross our native 



CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. IDJ 

variety, or even a cross of it by otlior and iuiiJi'oved breeds, 
with rams selected from quite ditterent localities; that is, 
for the moimtain ranges the Lincoln or the Leicester or the 
Shropshire rams may be used, but it would not be advisable 
to introduce these breeds wholly and suddenly into these 
entirely different conditions; and for lowland flocks it may 
be safe to cross them with the llomuey Marsh rams, or with 
a sheep, such as the Cheviot, reared in an intermediate local- 
ity, neither mountain uor plain. Strong variations ai'e always 
to be deprecated, but may be made gradually by the use 
of sheep from an intermediate locality, or which have been 
acclimatated by one or two years resiideuce. So the Merino, 
naturalized by centuries of adaptation to v;arm dry climates, 
to lowland pastures, to mountain ranging, and which has ex- 
hibited wonderful endurance and facility in meeting and suc- 
cMissfully surmounting any supposed difficulties in these 
ways, has proved itself a true cosmopolitan, and meets every 
expectation of the shepherd in every part of the world. 
We find it in the cold, snowy northern New England fields; 
in the dry plains of California; in the hot climate of Central 
America or Southern Africa, or the rainless ranges of Aus- 
tralia; as well as on our ^A'estern prairies, and the vast 
ranges of our great Northwest. And it should be the busi- 
ness of shepherds to study out the natural history of the 
sheep and its characteristics, as given in a preceding chap- 
ter, and thus make himself acquainted with the special, 
natural, or acquired disposition of the sheep he fancies, be- 
fore he commits himself to costly enterprises. 

As may be understood, acclimatation is the process of 
adaptation by which animals brought from different locali- 
ties are rendered by gi-adual steps able to withstand the condi- 
tions of their new localities, and to not only survive but 
flourish under tliese strange circumstances in countries re 
mote from tJjeir native habitation and under wholly differ- 
ent climatic effects. Even with the human race, coloniza- 
tion has been attempted disastrously except by slow degrees, 
and frequently only by the crossing, by intermarriage, of 
Europeans with the native races. The history of British In- 
dia affords an example of this difficulty of acclijnatatiug our 
race, used to sustain all kinds of hardships, and resist the 
most extreme variations of climate. But the effects of the 



114 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Indian climate have been sucb tliat after a century of occu- 
pation, the British residents in India have been obliged to 
return to their native country to somewhat lengthen out 
their shortened lives, due to the baneful effects of an ener- 
vating and -unwholesome climate. It is the fact that the 
effects of extreme heat changes the wool of a sheep to hair, 
after a few generations, and similar effects occur to change 
the character of the fleeces of the English sheep in the first 
crosses made under excessive change of climate. Of -course, 
the opposite effects occur when the new conditions are ail 
in favor of the sheep, but this can only be secured by ex- 
perience; no sufficient certainty can be assured in any other 
way than this. 

But long experience has shown, that, with but little ex- 
ception, full acclimatation is possible with all kinds of ani- 
mals except in a few instances, as that, the Newfoundland 
dog will not live in India; nor do the Spanish breed of 
fowls thrive in any other country than in their own. This 
is true with other breeds of fowls, which change their char- 
acter, sometimes ruinously, w'hen transferred to a different 
climate. This is most marked in the case of wild animals, 
which are rarely successfully reared in any other locality 
than that native to them. Thus the natural adaptation of 
animals to strange and different climates, directly, has very 
rarely been successful, and a course of breeding by occa- 
sional reversion to the old stock, from its original home, 
has been found necessary, as well as some considerable time 
that must elapse before acclimatation can be successfully 
and permanently assured. 

As in all similar changes, acclimatation has been found 
more easily successful by taking intermediate stages in the 
process. This fact is of great importance to the American 
breeders, not only in sheep, but of cattle and horses. Prog- 
ress by stages has always been found the most sure and 
effective, and the results gained at each step have been 
fixed without any apparent reversion or degradation. Thus 
the Spanish Merino sheep has not been found satisfactory 
in Argentina, or in Australia, or in South Africa. But the 
siame sheep, after years of training and preparation in the 
United States, has been most decidedly so. And this is why 
the shrewd breeders of Australia, made expert by a century 



CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 



115 



of practice, are fully satisfied to pay the enormous sum of 
five thousand dollars for an outbred Merino ram. We must 
not suppose the exix?rienced breeders of that ,i,'reat sheep 
rearing country are wanting in common sense, or do not 
know precisely what they want; and when a ram bred in 
Tasmania sold for this great price tlie Australian breeder 
was well aware what he Avas about. The Tasmanian climate 
is intermediate with tlie dry hot plains of Australia, and this 




"VICE-PRESIDENT." 

Hon. Jas. Gibson's Grand Champion Merino Ram, sold at Melbourne Ram 

Sales for 1,000 guineas ($5,0(X)). 

gradual change of climate goes a great way to secure the 
most desirable results through the gradual acclimatation 
of the sheep. Tbe pictures here given of the rams thus pur- 
chased show the fullest good sense and business ability 
and shrewdness of the buyer. The excess of wrinkles on 
the sheep is precisely what is wanted in breeding on smooth 
bodied sheep, and to increase the weight of the tleeces of the 
progeny of these rams. But tlie gradual acclimatation is 
worth still more, for it is an indisi)ensable matter witli 
Australian breeders to preserve the full and hardy constitu- 



116 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



tion of their flocks by the use of rams chosen for this pur- 
pose from an intermediate locality. 

It is for this reason that our Merino breeders are able to 
get the high prices paid for rams in these distant great sheep 
ranges. Those breeders know just Avhat they want, and find 
the first step in the necessary preparation- of the breed has 
been made here, and so they come hither to take the best 
of our rams to complete the process in their own flocks. 




"ROYALIST." 

W. H. Gibson's Tasmanian Merino Ram, sold for 1,000 guineas ($5J000) at 

the Sydney Ram Sale. 

It is for this reason too that our breeders may still 
expect to find a constant demand for our best rams or ewes 
for nothing more or less than this step in tliis process of ac- 
climatation, having been made here, it is so much easier to 
complete the process by the use of thesie intermediately ac- 
climatized sheep. 

But it does not follow that American breeders are not 
themselves forced to go back to the fountain head as regards 
some of our breeds not yet as fully acclimatized here. We 
ourselves need to sustain and improve every breed we have. 



CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 117 

except perhaps uiir rull.v Aineiicaiiizcd Merino. The Freucli 
01" Kambouillet, or delaine variety is, we Ihiuk, hardly to be 
included in this lull preparation for entering the ram mar- 
kets of the world. It will doubtless come in time, and all 
the sooner as our breeders will fix on a settled type for this 
class of sheep. The nature of the animal, as a scion of the 
old best Spanish breed, improved by the culture of the 
French breeders, has been improved by the first step in this 
process, the second step is being taken here, and it must 
go without saying— as a distinct scientific certainty— that 
our breeders will soon have the market of the world for 
these rams as well as for the true American Merinos, if they 
will continue to breed for the tj'^pe of sheep wanted to per- 
fect the flocks of other countries, and to sustain them in this 
perfection by the addition of blood acclimatized here. It is 
thus seen that this matter of fixing a type in conformity to 
the conditions cf an intermediate stage of the breeding, is 
one of the most important to be considered by the American 
breeder. 

The following illustrations of this subject may be offered 
just here: 

The method of accliinatation suggested in the foregoing 
lines should be regulated by several precautionary considera- 
tions: 

First: It may have no certain great or definite effect in 
adapting the constitution of individual animals to a new 
climate, and the various differences growing out of it; but at 
times may be wholly destructive to it, and wholly change for 
the worse all the w^eakest points of the animal. 

Second: It has been shown by sufficient experience that 
the offspring of animals vary in their constitutional adapta- 
tion to the climate, and therefore this influence must be 
controlled and enforced, and increased and kept up by the 
effect of inheritance, through a wise course of breeding, and 
a careful and skillful selection of the most successful in- 
stances of this adaptation. 

Third: It has been shown that great and sudden changes 
of climate have resulted in serious degeneration in regard 
to health, and a considerable check to reproduction. BaiTeu- 
ness has resulted in many conspicuous instances, as a result 
of wide climatic differences, by which the nervous system 



118 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

lias been so much weakened that the reproductive functious 
have beeu reudered wholly inoperative. 

Id order therefore to succeed in the acclimatatiou of ani- 
mals in any strange and dissimilar climate to that in which 
it has beeu reared, and in which it is found that it cannot 
directly maintain itself or even live— much less increase its 
liind— certain plans must be adopted. 

An intermediate station must be provided, in which the 
differences of climate and other circumstances growing out 
of it, may be made available to partly secure the course of 
improvement, and make this permanent during a course 
of time, for some years and generations at least. Then 
when favorable variations have been secured and made per- 
manent, a careful selection of subjects are chosen to breed 
from to fix this intermediate type, which is then made the 
basis of another advance. As in fact, an invader making an 
attack upon a strong and well defended country, first makes 
a permanent station at the scene of some great victory, and 
there entrenches himself, fortifying the camp, and in some 
cases building and populating a strong city, and from this 
point of vantage making new incursions, and so repeating 
these advances, until the last stronghold has been captured 
and occupied, when the whole region then submits to the 
conqueror. So the breeder makes a step in advance, and 
there rests until this step is found to be firm and fixed. 
Then another advance is made by another cross or selection 
of the fixed type reached, and this when fixed is made the 
point from which another advance is made. This is the 
whole history of the art of breeding in this direction, and 
has been the basis of the work and success of all the emi- 
nent breeders of history. It is the w^ay in which our various 
fixed breeds of sheep have been formed, and the expert of 
but moderate knowledge and experience knows this to be 
true, as the result of his own work, if he is inclined to take 
this as his guide. 

Next this intermediate station, or situation, or condition, 
having been securely reached and held, the most eminent 
members of the flock are selected for another advance, by 
whomsoever this advance may be made. The hardiest ex- 
amples of the breed, so far acclimatated, are selected; 
and these submitted to the most careful culture until the 



CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 119 

type is agaiu iixed securely; uud so this process goes ou 
uutil a salisfactoiy lixity oi. type aud a geueial close ad- 
herence to it of tbe iudividuals, have agaiu l)eeu secured. 
And then it will be yet advisable to go bacli to the nearest 
fixed tj'pe, for the reinforcement of the stock. 

It is seen how much time it must take to transfer auy 
breed with satisfactory success to a wholly different aud 
distant climate. It is this difficulty which leads the breed- 
ers of Australia, South Africa, South America, and other dis- 
tant localities, to continue to reinforce their flocks with new 
blood from our herds, aud to force our own breeders to re- 
turn to the original flocks from which their herds have 
sprung, for the reinforcement of their constitution and spe- 
cially desired excellencies for which at first the flock was 
chosen. 

It will thus be the wise course of breeders seeking the 
improvement of their flocks to find some intermediate source 
for the new blood to be infused; and to seek this in some in- 
termediate locality if possible. It will not be wise to go back 
at any time. This is only starting again from the same 
beginning point, whereas the gain made should be the new 
point for a new improvement. Thus the American shepherd, 
in the reinforcement of his flocl?:, will go to the near-by 
breeder, who has made a special success of fixing a good 
type of excellence on his stock, and there procure the new 
blood for the improvement of his, not yet fully improved and 
w^ell developed flock. And thus it is that the professional 
breeder must be the go-between for the shepherd and the 
original source of the type of sheep kept by the shepherd. 
It is in vain for the mere shepherd to maintain the excel- 
lence of any flock without occasionally and at short inter- 
vals going back to the father flock, for the reinforcement 
and improvement of his sheep, until in full time the process 
of full acclimatation has been completed and the desired 
type secured. 

A)mong other conditions by which the reproductive pro- 
cess is effected, for good or ill, are those depending on the 
feeding of the flock, and the age of the animals. And the 
sheep being— as has been already said — one of the most eas- 
ily impressable of our domestic races, it may be readily 
conceived tliat these conditions must have a large influence 



120 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

o^■e^ the cbanicter of the progeny, as well as the sex of 
it. The sex is au all-importaut matter to the shepherd whose 
flocks are, and have always been, valued by the number of 
them. But there is reason to believe, as the result of experi- 
ence as well as through special scientific experiments, that 
the sex of- the produce of a flock depends very much on the 
physical condition of the sheep, both as to age and robust- 
ness, which is due not only to the natural vigor and hardi- 
ness of a race, but to the means of subsistence. Of course 
food is the beginning and end of the condition of a flock, 
and the abundance of it as well as the nutritive value of it— 
which is naturally synonymous with abundance— must have 
its efliect on the natural vigor of the animals, which too must 
be the prevailing influence of the feeding. 

The natural law, both for wild and domesticated races, 
is that the fittest must survive. The most robust, the young 
and ardent, the best couditioued, together with the ample 
supply of food by which these conditions are secured, then, 
will be the rule on which is based the ratio of multiplica- 
tion of a species. The breeder is to take this into account 
as one of the most important, we may think, of the rules 
by which he must be guided in the pursuit of profit from the 
flock. 

Naturally in any herd the younger animals will be the 
most active and eager breeders. In the strife for the posses- 
sion of the ewes, the liardiest ram will ahvays be the victor. 
The older ones— as is the case with our native buffalo, elk. 
deer, and wild horses— are driven from the herds, and roam 
by themselves in abjective solitude. This is one of the laws 
of existence among all kinds of animals. Even savage 
races of mankind follow this rule. The same rule prevails in 
the human race, by virtue of the selection of the fittest, 
even in civilized society; for it is the most attractive per- 
sons that mate, and the young are chosen in preference to 
the old. This is one of the reasons for the great increase 
of population in nations in Avhich the degree of prosperity 
is the measure of the increase in numbers. It is the reason 
why the American people are increasing more rapidly than 
any other in the world, and the same is the reason why the 
French people is practically stationary as to numbers. There 
being no other nation in the world than ours, in which the 



CROSS BREEDING. 121 

means of living are so easily obtained, the marriages are 
early, and the families are large; and in addition to our na- 
tive population, we have a very large recruiting to it an- 
nually by young and vigorous immigrants. Of course any 
natural law api)lies to all kinds of animals, and as regards 
sheep, most easily increased by prosperity as well as by 
misfortune, the law prevails witli them to tlie fullest ex- 
tent. . 

With our domesticated animals it is tlie number of fe- 
males, and the vigor of the males, by which the rate of in- 
crease is determined and governed; so that the flock which 
is coupled with young rams has been found to be more pro- 
lific of ewe lambs than that served by old rams. This has 
been made a subject for accurate experiment in France, and 
the results have been shown directly in the line here pointed 
out. For instance, a flock of ewes served by rams less than 
eighteen mouths old brought 35 male lambs and 7G females. 
Of the produce, that from four year old ewes amounted to 
5 males and 21 females. Of two year old ewes the produce 
was about two feinales to one male. On tlie other hanti, 
ewes served by four j'ear old rams brought 54 males and 31 
females; of the three year old ewes the produce was about 
evenly divided, but of two and four-year-olds tlie male lambs 
were more than twice the number of the females. 

This result has been noted in ordinary flocks, and it goes 
to show that if this rule is absolute, which we may readily 
conclude and admit, as it is based on a well known natural 
law, which is operative under all circumstances, and founded 
on all reasonable probability, the breeder may turn it to 
his own special advantage, as may be so fitted and most np- 
plicable to the nature of his pursuit. The breeder of rams 
may largely increase the value of his produce by the great.^r 
number of salable stock, while the shepherd desiring num- 
ber without regard to anything but permanent increase, mny 
guide himself in conformity to this rule. 

CROSS BREEDING. 

In cross breeding, the shepherd or special breeder as 
well, is hnndling very sharp-edged tools, as tlie saying goes. 
He is entering on the most intricate part of the business. 
But as it is safe to use sucli tools when they are handled 



122 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

with skill, so the shepherd desirous of increasing the value 
of his flock for mutton, or fleece, may do so with success 
if the crossing is done judiciously. This is, as has been pre- 
viously stated, a common i3ractice among the German shep- 
herds who employ experts to choose the rams that are best 
fitted for the special use for which they are desired. 

The crossing of sheep is a distinctly temporary purpose. 
It may be to get early lambs, or black-faced lambs w^iich iu 
most of the lamb markets are most highly valued by the 
butchers, and justly so on account of their size, solid, com- 
pact form, and early maturing. When extra early lambs, 
known as house lambs are the end in view, the cross breed- 
ing is indispensable, and it has long been and still is the pre- 
vailing custom in England, from which couutry the fashion 
has been introduced here, to keep Dorset ewes for this pur- 
pose, crossing a Southdown or Shropshire ram on these 
ewes, so as to bring the lamb about September; Avhen it is 
ready for market after having been reared in the house by 
the Christmas holidays. As the ewes of this breed will 
take the ram at any time of the year, they are bred to one 
of their own breed to reinforce the flock. For this use this 
breed is the most valuable of all kinds of sheep. It should 
be noted that the Somerset ewes bred in the adjoining 
county to Dorset, and which has precisely the same mild 
Winter climate and agricultural character, are practically, 
and all but nominallj^ of the same habits and breeding as 
the Dorsets. The greatest scope, hoAvever, for cross breed- 
ing is on the native sheep which, although profitable on the 
rough, sparse pasture fields of the ordinary farms, but es- 
pecially in the Southern States, do not return sufficient 
profit for the higher farming elsewhere. Here it is fre- 
quently desirable to rear cross bred sheep for both the fleece 
and for the carcass. Doubtless it is most desirable in such 
cases to procure good rams, of w^hatever breeds may be 
most desired, to cross on the flocks for the purpose of get- 
ting lambs which are excellent feeders, and by ^providing 
such food crops as rape or turnips, or even sugar beets, or for 
feeding in the vicinity of some sugar factory, on the waste 
pulp of the beets, along wdth the home-grown grain and 
coarse fodder. 

On the extensive ranges of the West, from South to 



CROSS BREEDING. 123 

North, this practice may be made extremelj' pivjfitable, for 
the wool so procured; and tliis is done in localities where it 
might be inconvenient to keep the higher classes of sheep 
for the main flocks. In this way, by the use of a Cotswold, 
Shropshire, Leicester, or Lincoln ram— iu fact of any of the 
special heavy-bodied and fleeced rams— the produce may 
be doubled with ease, and more profit, than the mere 
doubling of the fleeces, by the heavier carcassi. The first 
cross so made is rarely disappointing to the flockmaster. 
It is the basis of the wool product of those vast sheep ranges 
of Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, and South Africa, 
from whence a large business in shipping the frozen car- 
casses in the cold-storage steamers expressly fitted for this 
extensive and constantly increasing trade, is also thus se- 
cured. 

The scientific process of cross breeding is based on the 
well established principle that the first cross is always sat- 
isfactory. The natural tendency to go back to the original 
coarse or inferior race is not shown in the firs^ cross. And 
by judicious selection of this cross bred progenj' it is possible 
to make in time a settled and acclimated cross breed which 
maj'- become sufficiently prominent under a wise coiirse 
of selection and breeding during a few years. But to do 
this the ram is to be changed ;^^'t:arly, securing one from an 
unrelated herd with the special needed character for the fur- 
ther improvement of the flock, by the weeding out of inferior 
ewes, and the retention of those which show the most 
marked likeness to the parent ram. It is a frequent custom 
among the Australian flockmasters to change the ram every 
year with neighbors, or when large flocks are kept to divide 
them up on the ranges, changing the rams from one to the 
other. In this way a valuable cross breed is established in 
time, but it is scarcely ever so firmly established on account 
of the climatic difficulties in the way, as have been men- 
tioned above in this chapter, as to remove the necessity for 
the infusion of new blood at such times as the need for the 
renovation may become apparent. 

Only a few inen are adapted by natural affinity and 
shrewdness to succeed as breeders of a mixed flock. Long 
years and close study, with a natural aptitude to judge of 
needs, and the means of supplying them, are indispensable 



134 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

for success in tliis line. And in such instances as where 
extensive flocks are owned by one master, and a special 
flock for breeding rams for home use is kept, it is decidedly 
desirable to employ, permanently if possible, at least one 
shepherd who is capable of taking charge of this ram breed- 
ing flock, and of choosing out of it the rams best suited for 
the use of the general flocks, as may need to be selected 
year by year. 

INFLUENCE OF SOILS ON THE HEALTH 
OF SHEEP. 

It goes without saying that only healthy sheep can be 
profitable to the shepherd. It may not be that the death 
rate is excessive, the mere weakness of the sj^stem, for 
want of the vigorous action of the vital functions, is suffi- 
cient to cause a low state of health, first to be noticed in the 
failure of the fleece, and the subjection of the flock to fre- 
quent attacks of illness. Some diseases, such as myelitis, 
for instance, which is known by old-fashioned shepherds as 
rickets (paralysis of the hind parts, and sometimes of the 
brain) of wliich the most prominent symptom is that com- 
monly known as staggers, when the sheep ruin about. evi- 
dently blind to a varying degree, so that they stumble over 
every obstacle in their way, or wander aimlessly about, 
finally dying of simple exhaustion, and others of the same 
nature due to the disturbance of the functions of the brain^ 
and all due to want of natural vigor, all those are found to 
be most prevalent on certain kinds of soils, and do not e^^ist 
on others. 

Of course, w^e understand that the nature of the soil 
regulates, and very seriously affects, the actual composition 
of the herbage of cultivated crops grown. Thus we knoAv 
that clover— for instance— has a largely varying proportion 
of lime and potash in its composition, in some cases having 
a largely increased quantity of 'one of these, and in others 
a great deficiency. And if so, it must follow that other 
kinds of herbage must be affected in the same way. Thus 
we kniorw tlhat on some soils tihe ash of clover lias only fif- 
teen per cent of potash in it, while on other soils there is 
fifty per cent; while the lime varies in the inverse propor- 
tion of from forty to only twenty-five per cent. And it is 



INFLUENCE OF SOILS. 125 

the fact that on such lauds as have this excessive quantitj' 
of potash, and the least of lime, sheep are subject to these 
various diseases of the nervous system mentioned above, 
and that the quality of the fleece will suffer with the health 
of the animal. 

Potash in excess is disastrous to all kinds of domestic 
animals. It causes a similar disease in pigs to the preva- 
lent one in sheep, the symptoms of which most noticeable 
ave loss of power of the nervous system, with inability to 
use the hind limbs. And we cannot neglect this fact when 
considering this great influence of the soil on the character 
of the growths of it, by which animals feeding on these 
products of these lauds are affected. Wool contains a large 
quantity of sulphur, and such plants as turnips, rape, clover, 
tares, cabbage and alfalfa, in all of which there is a large 
proportion of this indispensable element of the fleece, are 
well known to be of the greatest value to the shepherd. 

It is equally a fact that thos'e localities in which the best 
sheep are reared, such as Vermont. AVestern New York, 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and generally where limestone prevails, 
have been the homes of the finest of the flocks. This is espe- 
cially the fact in England and Scotland; and equally that 
the old red sandstone, intermingled with a fossiliferous 
limestone, have been the homes in which the finest flocks 
of our best sheep have been reared. 

The Southdown has its home on the chalk lands of Cen- 
tral England where the downs, lying on this lime formation, 
produce the sweetest and most healthful pasture grasses, 
short, but dense, and of the highest nutritive value. The best 
of the Yorkshire wools, and the best mutton sheep of that 
county, are grown on a magnesian limestone soil. The Lin- 
coln yields its lustrious fleeces on a similar geological forma- 
tion, formed by the disintegration of the same kind of rocks, 
but covered with a fertile soil in which the herbage con- 
tains all the necessary elements for the nutriment of this 
fine breed. The mixed lime and sandstone soils of the ad- 
joining County of Nottingham produce equally good wools; 
and the Lincolns transferi-ed thither maintain their original 
excellence. The chalk soil of Kent feeds the Romney Marsh 
sheep. The Cheviot excels on its same named hills of which 
the soil is trap and granite Avith an ample proportion of lime, 



12G THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

and it is a well known fact that the Black-faced Highland 
sheep is n^ucb improved when it is transferred for final feed- 
ing to the same kinds of soil, and the rich pastures of Cen- 
tral England. The Cotswold had its home on the limestone 
hills of which the rich soil furnished the sweetest and most 
nutritious pastures. And generally, it has been found that 
the flocks least subject to the many :11s of which the sheep 
is pre-eminently heir to, have been fed and reared where 
limestone prevails, or where the soil is w^ell drained and 
yields the most perfect growth of the best herbage. It is 
also to be remarked that on the light lands of Norfolk, 
where the turnip and its related fodder crops grow to per- 
fection (as witness the invaluable Avhite Norfolk turnip, 
there grown for feedings flocks in the fields along with 
rape and other crops that are rich in sulphur), there the 
sheep bring the most satisfactory results to the feeders, 
who go to distant pastures to procure the stock for this feed- 
ing by which the farms are enriched. Low lying meadow 
lands that are made up of the debris of such geological 
foi-mations, but when thoroughly well drained— for the 
sheep must have a dry foot— have been found excellently 
well adapted to the groAvth of sheep, amd it is only on these 
low lying lands, undrained, that the destructive liver fluke 
is found injurious. 

These suggestions are made to stimulate the study of 
this most important matter, by American shepherds, so that 
in selecting farms or range feeding grounds, a proper and 
sufficient study of the geological conditions of the locality 
may be made. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SCIENCE AND AKT OF FEEDING. 

*'Tbe feeding of cattle is the most importaDt part of agri- 
culture." Tliese ^vo^ds appear in a work on agriculture by 
that renowned writer and excellent farmer, Cicero, who 
lived two thousand years ago. And we may well believe 
that he, who was an extensive owner of sheep of the finest 
quality of the then race of which our invaluable Merino 
Is a direct descendant, gave due credit to the sheep as being 
the most valuable of all domestic animals in. regard to tlie 
right and proper feeding of it. It was not only that the 
food nourished animals reared on the farm, and so made 
a profit from the flesh and the fleece, but that in the due 
course of nature the produce of the laud being fed to cattle— 
in which sheep Avere, and are always, included as one 
kind of the class of domestic animals— not only nourished 
the animals fed, but left the greater part of it to return to 
the land to fertilize it and so cause it to return still more 
crops for feeding more cattle. And if we study carefuliy 
the writings of the many ancient authors, poets and prose 
writers, which are extant, we shall discover tliat what the.v 
did not know of the art and practice of agriculture is of 
very little account to-day. What we know, which they did 
not, is simply the inner causes of things which they were 
well acquainted with, but not the reasons why they 
were so, which is really all there is in the science of the 
art and practice. Thus it is that we may learn much that is 
valuable from these ancient writers, and get, through the 
details of their practice, invaluable illustrations in regard to 
the axioms and rules of modern scientific practice in every 
department of agriculture. 

So important a matter then as the feeding of his flock to 
the intelligent shepherd, should be studied scientifically, 
first; and then the rules and suggestions to be derived from 



128 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

this study, carefully made, will easily form the practice to 
be followed. 

"Out of nothing, nothing comes," is another ancient piece 
of wisdom. We can never get anything out of nothing. We 
must feed a sheep before we can expect it to return to us 
anything we may expect. The science of this art of feeding, 
first teaches us of what an animal is compo«ed, by what its 
life—its very breath— is supported; of what its flesh, bone, 
wool, and every other part of it, or its products, consists; 
what is wanted is the natural functions of the animal, and 
thus precisely what food the animal should receive in any 
specified time to support it in the manner due to our ex- 
pectation of profit from it. In short the figures which the 
scientific expert gives us in these respects are like the book 
accounts of a business man, in which a person is charged 
with what he receives, and credited with what he returns. 
And by a great amount of accurate experiment we have got 
this matter down to such a fine point, that the shepherd— as 
any other feeder of animals— may fix on a. certain ration for 
his sheep, and so get every advantage he desires for their 
welfare and profitable use, at the least possible cost. 

To ascertain the character of the food best fitted for sheep 
we may begin by considering the actual composition of an 
animal, Avhich Aveighed 154 lbs,, of which the fleece weighed 
ten pounds. 

The body is made up of: 

LBS. OZ. GRAINS. 

Oxygen Ill — — 

Hydrogen 14 — — 

Carbon 21 — — 

Nitrogen 3 10 — 

Pnosphorus 1 2 88 

Lime 2 — — 

- Sulphar — — 219 

Chlorine — 2 47 

Sodium — 2 116 

Potasium — — 290 

Iron — - 100 

Magnesium — — 12 

Silica — — 2 

The ordinary compound materials of the body of the 

sheep are given as follows: 

LBS. oz. 

Water Ill — 

Gelatin 1.5 — 

Albumen 4 3 

Fibrin 4 4 

Fat 12 — 

Ashes 7 9 



SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 129 

Tilt cumpojsitiou of the tloecc, pur cent of its luire dry 

wool, is: 

Carbon 49.25 

Hydrogen 7.57 

Nitrogen 1,5.86 

Oxygen 23.66 

Sulphur 3.66 

Total 100.00 

The 3'olk, or suiiit, consists of: 

Potash, as carbonate 86.78 per cent. 

Potash, as chloride 6.18 " 

Potash, as sulphate 2,83 " 

Other substances 4.21 " 

Total 100.00 

Besides the yolk, wliicli is soluble in water, there is 
seven to ten per cent of grease or oil. 

It will be evident tbat as the sheep is kept for its wool 
as well as for its flesh, the fleece is to be considered as a 
part of the animal to be provided for in the feeding. But wool 
is made up of almost precisely the same elements as skin, 
hair, or horn, showing that all these parts of an animal 
are really parts of the skin, and a mere change of the form 
of it. And the only difference between the flesh of an ani- 
mal and the skin, with its natural covering, and its out- 
growths, is the someAvhat larger proportion of nitrogen in 
the latter than in the flesh. This is shown by these 
figures: 

CARBON. HYDROGEN. NITROGEN. ^?J^ii?jt?^^ 

SL LPHUR. 

Flesh 51.83 7.57 15.01 25.60 

Skin 50.99 7.07 18.72 23.22 

Woo] 50.65 7.03 17.71 24.61 

Hair 51.53 6.69 17.94 23.84 

Horn 51.99 6.72 17.28 24.01 

A very cursory examination and study of these figures 
will go to show the almost perfect similarity between all 
the.se parts of an animal, and how nature may vary the 
character of her produ-cts in form, but yet preserve the sim- 
ilarity of the materials of which they are made up. 

Perceiving of what raw materials a sheep is made 
up we must think of wiiat materials the food for the pro- 
duction of these parts of the sheep, must consist. But in 
passing, let us consider for a moment one fact. We see that 
the horn of a Merino sheep, or a Dorset, has some pounds of 
precisely the same materials as so much wool contains. Then. 



130 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

as tlie hoi'DS do not add one cent to the value of an animal, 
and has really so many pounds of matter in them that 
might, if turned that way, add so much to the weight of the 
fleece, it fo}io^^s that the shepherd may ask himself this 
pertinent question, Why waste food in the making of a pair 
of seven or eight pound horns, instead oif breeding oft" 
these horns and making more wool of the food and nutri- 
ment so used to waste? 

But this is only one part of the subject of the natural 
necessities of the animal. Food supports life, as well as 
growth. Life is the first to be considered. And the support 
of 'this calls for a large quantity of nutriment. It may be 
said that life is supported by heat. The process of breath- 
ing, by which the blood 2Z purified by every breath drawn, 
is a chemical operation which is well worth study. As the 
blood circulates through the system it takes up a largo 
quantity of waste matter, tlie product of the muscular move- 
ment of the animal, and the action of every vital organ. 
The bright red, pure blood, which is forced by the muscular 
action of the heart through the arteries, by which it is car- 
ried to the capillaries or minute veins just under, and all 
through tlie skin; and these are so exceedingly fine, aud are 
so closely placed in a dense network that the point of the 
finest needle cannot penetrate the skin, anywhere, with- 
out w^oundiug one or more of them and drawing 
blood; this blood thus passing through these minute 
veins supply every part of the body with the nutri- 
ment that is derived from the food, and at the 
same time wash, as it were, away all the impurities caused 
by the constant action of the muscles, and then changing 
from the bright crimson of the arterial blood, to a dark, al- 
most black, color, returns to the heart, by whose pulsation- 
like that of a pump— this dark blood is forced into the lungs 
where it is acted upon by the oxygen of the air breathed. 
This oxygen consumes these impurities. Some of them are 
excreted by the siiin in the form of perspiration, which is 
always going on, whether in heat or cold, but mostly un- 
der the influence of heat. This consumption of this impure 
matter by the oxygen of the air breathed into the lungs, is 
equivalent to a burning up of these impurities mostly con- 
sisting of carbonaceous matters, and by this burning, beat 



SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 181 

is formed, 1)3' which tlie auiinal is kept warm, and this heat 
is known as the vital heat of the bod3^ and it is indispensa- 
ble to the continuation of the life of the animal. 

Now it is well known that when carbon and oxygen 
unite, heat is formed, and this is the same whether it is pro- 
duced by the consumption of the carbon in a stove, or in a 
tire of any kind, or in the lungs of a sheep or other animal. 
So that it follows that the carbon in the food is actually 
consumed in the animal and produces heat. This carbon of 
the food consists of the starch, the sugar— which is pro- 
duced from the starch—and as well, of any of the other 
•carbonaceous matters of the food that are capable of diges- 
tion, and these we call the carbo-hydrates of the food, be- 
cause they all consist of carbon and water, which is made 
up of oxygen and hydrogen. These carbonaceous matters 
of the food we call heat formers, for these reasons set forth. 
And these make up the larger portion of all food of 
animals. 

Now just here for a simple illustration of—what we are 
approaching— the composition of a typical ration for any 
farm animal, as thus: 

Standard feeding rations for 100 lbs. live weight— 

For each 100 lbs. live weight 2^^ pounds 

Total dry substance 2 ~ " 

Consisting — 

Protein i^ «♦ 

Carbo-hydrates \% " 

Fat % 

This ration may be taken as a standard for a full-fed 
sheep of one hundred pounds live weight, or for any other 
farm animal kept for product, as a cow in milk. 

There is a waste of other food in the mere living of any 
animal. If we take notice we may see the act of breath- 
ing and of moving causes some exertion of the muscles. This 
is called work, to the extent that the muscular system is in 
motion, and everj'^ motion of an animal uses up some of the 
fleshy muscular matter, which is wasted, and carried off 
from the system by the kidneys, which have a most import- 
ant function in thus purifying the blood of this waste mat- 
ter. So that a sufficient supply of this flesh forming matter 
of +he food is to be furnished to make up this waste, as well 
as to provide for the growth of the animal. This flesh form- 



133 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

iug matter is called the protein of the food, this word signi- 
fying the first necessity of life. 

Then we have to supply the fat. This is generally 
laid up in the manner we all know in the animal, through 
its flesh, and on the interior of the body; the surplus is de- 
posited on the outer part under the sliin. 

Thus we have the protein, the carbo-hydrates, and the 
fat, as the three elements of nutrition of the animal to be 
supplied by the food. 

Foods of course vary in composition. Some consist of 
the carbo-hydrates mostly, as corn; others are richer in pro- 
tein, as bran: and some have more fat than others. As a* 
guide in the choice of the various kinds of foods we have 
some tables of the composition of those In common use, 
with what is called the nutritive ratio given in a separate 
column. It is a simple matter to choose the most suitable 
foods for feeding from the list given, and by noting the 
nutritive ratio, attached in the column provided for it, it is 
an easy matter for the careful feeder to make up such a 
ration as will be at once the best for the feeding effect, 
and for the value of it in the markets when any purchased 
foods are needed. 

Further on we shall return to this part of the subject, 
considering at present the matter from its practical point of 
view. 

The feeding of sheep is the most important part of the 
process of improvement. Looking back over the history 
of this animal we shall find that the feeding has always been 
the first part of the process of improivement. This is rea- 
sonable as well as indisputable, and we may take it as the 
first and fundamental part of improvement, and the indis- 
pensable preliminary to better breeding. For if character- 
istics are inherited, as we must believe, then the habit of eating 
and digesting the largest quantity of the best food, and turn- 
ing this to growth of carcass or fleece, must be the first 
means of approach to an improved condition and standard. 
So that the feeding must come first, and this inheritable apti- 
tude for the making of growth, or of early maturity, be 
made the basis of the improvement desired. Although this 
view is stubbornly contested by some of the scientific people, 
and breeding is placed first in this category of means of im- 



SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 133 

provi'ng: our flomestic animals, it socms that such a view is 
wholly untenable, and quite opposed by the practice and re- 
sults of breediui;-. It is unreasonable as well, for if the breed- 
ers* axiom— like produces like— is true and well founded, 
then we must first make the parent what we wish, as far 
as we can by stimulating the ability to turn good food Into 
growth, and then by breeding from these improved feeders 
get a progeny upon which we nuay be able to improve still 
further in this direction. Were it otherwise, we should have 
no starting point to breed from for the improvement of the 
tl(i^ks, and it has been shown in the previous chapter that 
the art and science of breeding are both founded, as on the 
most unmistakable and the most stolid basis of perpetuating 
by breeding, those animals together, one of whom at least, 
but both if possible, have previously undergone a process of 
improvement bj^ feeding, and the best feeders have been 
invariably chosen by the most successful masters of the art, 
as the means of fixing on the progeny their habit and procliv- 
ity of turning the most food possible into growth of carcass 
of the best form, and into a fleece of the most valuable w^ool. 
If the art of feeding does not come before, and as a prelimi- 
nary to that of breeding, all knowledge and experience go for 
nothing. 

Feeding is the main business of the mutton producer. 
But as has been shown, that the wool is a mere outgrowth 
of the flesh and skin, partaking as closely as may be of the 
character and substance of the flesh, we cannot improve the 
flesh of a sheep without at the same time improving the 
fleece. These go together. But so far the art of the feeder 
has been employed in the development of a fine carcass of 
the best meat, yet at the same time the fleece has been 
improved in length and quality of staple. Every expert 
knows, and every shepherd should know, th^rt wool is seri- 
ously damaged by poor feeding; every set back of the sheep 
is marked by a weak spot in the fleece in which the fiber 
breaks, and the wool is fit only for the cheapest kinds of 
products. The growth is also arrested, and as an example of 
the need for good feeding for a good fleece, it may be shown 
that as soon as the sheep is shorn, and the new growth of the 
fleece calls for adequate nutriment, the appetite of a sheep is 
notnbly increased, and if it is not duly supplied with the 



134 THE DOMESTICi SHEEP. 

quantity and kind of food needed, the sheep becomes thin, 
or if the carcass grows the fleece does not. 

It has been shown prfeviously in this chapter how the 
wool of a sheep is made up, of so much nitrogen, especially. 
This is the chief element, as has been said of the protein of 
the food. It is the fact, that in the nutrition of an animal, 
the elements of the food go first to sustain the vital func- 
tions, for an animal will live although it loses flesh ami 
becomes thin and poor. Thus the needs for life, the vital life, 
will be supplied first, and then the secondary prdduct— yie 
flesh— is provided for, and last of all the fleece. Then fat is 
deposited in the tissues, and on the inside first, and the sur- 
plus is laid on the carcass under the skin. Thus it is that 
the protein of the food is the main element for the full nutri- 
tion of the sheep. And in choosing foods those most rich in 
this element are first called for. 

No animal will fatten except on the surplus nutriment 
supplied to it in the food. Fat is laid up in an animal as a 
source of subsistence in case of need, to be drawn upon when 
the food is not in full supply. This is the well known 
case in the hibernating animals, who hide in burrows un- 
derground during the Winter, and live without food, as is 
the common saying as to bears, who are alleged by some 
jocular individuals to live through the Winter by sucking 
their paws. While this is not supposable as a process of nu- 
trition, yet they are well known to feed voraciously on tlie 
nuts of the woods, and hide in the warmest covert to be 
found in the cold weather, coming out in the spring thin ami 
poor in flesh, and devoid of fat. Thus it is that the surplus 
of the late Summer's food is expended in laying fat, on the 
inside chiefly, but as well on the outside, for fat is an excel- 
lent non-conductor of heat, and thus a.cts as a most useful 
blanket around the sleeping animal, which taking no exer- 
cise wastes little of its substance, and using up the surplus 
fat exists comfortably during its several months of hiber- 
nation. Thus the fall months are naturally the best for 
the fattening of sheep, who, laying up fat, will not waste the 
surplus food in the production of heat, and in so far as they 
are well sheltered from the cold, and the fleece having made 
a good growth up to this time, the sheep fatten quickly. But 



SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 135 

the best foods for this fattening process are those rich in the 
protein substances. 

An example of this may be given: 

A lot of sheep were fed at one of the German experiment 
stations. They were divided into four groups, and each lot 
were fed differently as to the proportion of the protein. The 
first lot were fed a ration made up of 0.22U parts of protein,. 
1.648 parts of carbo-hydrates, the total food thus being 
equivalent to 1.8GS lbs. daily of food actually digested. The 
nutritive ratio— that is the proportion of the protein to the 
carbo-hjalrates— was 1 of the former to TVo of the latter. 
The actual increase in weight of this lot was a little less 
than two ounces daily. The dressed weight of the carcass 
was 48 per cent of the live weight. The last lot of the four 
were fed a ration of 0.384 of protein, with 1.538 of carbo-hy- 
drates, the total food being equal to 1.922 lbs. daily. The nu- 
tritive ratio was 1 of protein to 4 of the carbo-hydrates. The 
increase in weight of this lot was a little over three ounces 
a day, and the proportion of dressed w^eight w^as 55 per cent 
of the live weight. 

This experiment was fully corroborated by several others 
having similar results. The Canadian farmers and shep- 
herds use peas extensively in fattening sheep, as well as pigs. 
Indeed it is the main feed for this use. No other sheep 
farmers in the world make better results in feeding than 
these, and the English sheep feeders following this rule, 
feed largely of beans, equally rich in protein. And no better 
feeders of mutton or growers of wool exist. Thus science 
and practice confirm each other, as is always the case when 
facts are in question. 

Every well informed shepherd is fully cognizant of what 
the French have done in regard to their fine Merinos, what- 
ever sub-name they may go by— Rambouillet, Delaines, or 
Black-Tops— and how they have more than doubled the car- 
cass weight, and the weight of the fleece at the same time, 
lessening the waste of yolk and grease in the wool. And we 
all know what our own breeders have done with tbe old 
Spanish Merino. These invaluable results are simply the 
effects of feeding first and last; of course the breeding has 
concentrated these results in the best selected sheep, and this 
has made the improvement permanent by inherited tendency. 



136 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

These masterpieces of sheep culture, as well as the quite 
equal work of a full ceutury of the English breeders, has ouly 
concentrated the excellent feeding qualities of the best sheep, 
and fixed the type so that it is inherited with certainty 

We cannot ignore the excellent results of feeding upon 
the fleece. This, as has been said, is a similar product to 
the hair of other aaiimala • Every one acquainted with the 
best breeds of cattle knows how the hair is softened, and in- 
creased in tlrickness upon the skin of those animals having 
the mellow touch due to the layer of fat immediately under 
the skin. This is a similar instance, to be well considered, 
for all animals are made of one blood, a.nd amenable to the 
same natural laws; and what happens in the feeding of cat- 
tle must apply equally to the feeding of sheep. 

THE NUTRITIVE RATIO. 

We have mentioned the nutritive ratio. This term, how- 
ever well understood by scientific people, is not so well so 
by others. We therefore explain the meaning of the term 
and the method of finding it from the' known composition 
of the various foods as given in the table on a succeeding 
page. 

A great many, thousands in fact, of careful experiments 
have been made especially by the German chemists at the 
scientific stations, of the common food substances. These 
bear a comparative value as the composition of each varies. 
But as any feeder may desire to select any one or more 
of the various foods for his use, moved thereto by various 
good reasons, as thie cheapness or dearness, or the supply of 
different kinds, w^e have the means of easily determining 
what quantity of this or that may be equivalent to others. 
We therefore refer to the table of analyses of composition 
of the various kinds of foods, and the amount of their diges- 
tible nutriments, and by ascertaining the relative character 
of each, we may easily compound a suitable ration with 
fixed nutritive value, of any of them. 

For example: Let us take good meadow hay, and find its 
nutritive ratio. Turning to the table of compositions we 
find that this kind of hay is made up of these nutrients: 



NUTRITIVE RATIO. 137 

ACTUAL. DIGESTIBLE. 

Water 14.3 per cent. — per cent. 

Ash 6.2 " " — " 

Protein 9.7 " " 56 " " 

Fiber 26.3 ^' " 57 " " 

Starch, etc 41.O " " 63 " " 

Fat 2.5 '• " 48 " " 

100.0 

The digestible matter of these is staled in the secoud col- 
umn. Finding- the quantity of di.s>-estil)h' matter in each, we 
find this to be: 

Protein r.4 per cent. 

Fiber 15. - » 

Starch, etc 25.8 " 

Fat 1,2 " " 

We then take these digestible equivalents— for it is only 
the digestible parts of the food that count in the feeding of 
an animal as will be easily understood— and calculate the 
quantities of each. 

We then make this comparison: 

Digestible protein : . . 5.4 

Digestible fiber 15, 

Digestible starch, etc 2.5.8 

Digestible fat 3,0 

43.8 

The fat is seen to be increased to 3. This is because a 
pound of fat, being w^holly digestible, and having two and a 
half times as much nutritive effect a:s starch and other carbo- 
hydrates, it is worth so much more, as food, as starch is. 
Then we find that we have 5.4 parts of protein to 4.3.8 of the 
whole of the carbo-hydrates (the fiber and starch), and the 
increased fat. All these are made up of carbon and water, 
hence we call them all carbo-hydrates, but keep the fats 
distinct. We then find the proportions between these as 5.4 
Is to 43.8— so is 1 to 8.1. 

Then 8.4 is the nutritive ratio between the carbo-hy- 
drates and the protein, or one pound of the former exists in 
the hay to 8.4 pounds of the others. 

This is the best natural nutritive rafio, or proportion, for 
the support of any animal for ordinary growth. For fatten- 
ing we increase or widen the ratio by adding to the carbo- 
hydrates or the fats. 

Profit in sheep farming calls for the most generous feed- 
ing, carefully carried through with the utmost regularity as 



138 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

to the quantity of food and tlie time of feeding. A sheep is a 
restless animal, and it worries if the time of feeding is de- 
layed only a short time. Then the shepherd, thoughtless of this 
habit of his flock, hears the impatient bleating, all of which 
means to him the loss of so much food on account of the loss 
by nervous excitement and worry of the flock. As a rule we 
are not sufficiently careful in this regard, and thus we do 
not meet with so much success in this part of our farming 
or herding as the English shepherds do. There the sheep is 
considered the "rent-payei'," that is, it pays the whole cost 
of the use or interest on the value of the land. Here it 
rarely amounts to half as much as this, for our lands are 
much cheai)er than those of England. 

As has been said, the sheep— under the best methods of 
management— pays three profits: the fleece, the lamb and 
the carcass. But on farms there is another source of income. 
This we may find in returning to the figures given abov-e, 
where w^e find a large part of food not accounted for as 
digestible nutriment. What becomes of this? It goes to 
make manure which fertilizes the land, increasing the crops, 
thus enabling the farmer to keep more sheep, and thus this 
goes on increasing constantly. As more manure more crops, 
more crops more sheep, and still more manure more crops, 
more sheep, and constantly more profit, through the enrich- 
ment of the land. 

A well fed flock is the most profitable property a farmer 
can own. It is said the dairy is this. But the -sheep take 
the palm from the cows every time. A cow, if only fed for 
milk, takes more fertility from the land in a year than ten 
sheep, yet it is figured that seven sheep may be kept on one 
acre in the best manner. Sheep are fed with profit in Eng- 
land, the whole of Great Britain and. Ireland may be in- 
cluded in this name, and equally in France and Germany, 
on land worth, and paying interest or rent on, a value of five 
hundred dollars an acre; and the reason for it is the skillful 
methods of feeding, of which the growth of root crops is the 
chief staple element. This we will say, with the strongest 
emphasis, is the key to complete successful keeping of sheep 
on farms. 

Sir J. B. Lawes— the first agricultural experimenter in 
the world— in his most complete reports of his work during 



140 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

more than fifty years, proved that sheep may be fed with a 
profit of fifty per cent more than cattle. For the food con- 
sumed the sheep laid up an increase of live weight of twelve 
per cent, while cattle increased only eight per cent. So that 
eight and a half pounds of food increased the weight of 
sheep as much as twelve and a half pounds of the same 
food increased the weight of cattle. The wool is thrown 
in as a bonus to the feeder of sheep, and this we may believe 
will liay the cost of the feeding.- So that the farmer who 
feeds a flock of sheep over a Winter will make fifty per cent 
more weight of the same food as compared with cattle, and 
have the fleece besides. The lamb will offset the calf if it 
does not largely exceed the profit in it, for there may be 
seven lambs reared for one calf, and this without the labor 
of attending to the calves. The lambs feed themselves. Be- 
sides the profit from the lambs comes in within a few 
months, while the calf takes more time to mature. 

FEEDING FOR LAMBS. 

One of the most profitable methods of feeding a flock 
is to purchase a bunch of ewes in the late Summer, or earlier 
if possible. By good feeding, while on the aftermath of a 
clover field, with a run on a grain stubble, until the Winter 
sets in, and then feeding on clover hay and a small allow- 
ance of oats, and a still smaller feed of corn, with a few 
chopped roots, and a change of the grain to bran occasion- 
ally, making use of a cheap, simple feeding shed, in a dry 
yard, a flock of sheep bred to a pure Cotswold ram has made 
a proflt of one hundred and fifty per cent on the money in- 
vested for something less than a year. It was a small ex- 
periment made by the author to test this matter of profit to 
the farmer made in this easy way. The value of the large 
quantity of manure left in the shed when the sheep went on 
to a second year clover field, in the Spring, is not counted 
in these figures, but it was well worth more than a dollar 
a head for the ewes kept. The sheep were common natives, 
and had they been a better lot the profit might have 
been larger. But it is an easy matter to procure a lot of 
picked native sheep from the passing droves, when it would 
not be so easy to procure better bred ewes. The better bred 
lambs, however, made the most of the profit, and proved the 



FEEDING FOR LAMBS. 141 

great advantage of crossing such a ram on a flock of the 
common natives. 

The Winter feeding of a small flock may thus be made 
the most profitable part of the farmer's work. There is a 
wide scope for it anywhere, and if the lambs thus reared are 
kept for a permanent flock, an equal profit might be made 
every year. Some of the most successful farmers make a 
practice of feeding sheep in this way to consume the rough- 
ness of their crops, the straw, the corn fodder, or these made 
into ensilage, with a moderate allowance of grain. It has 
been found a good practice to cut the green corn stalks taken 
from the usual husking and mixing them in a silo with the 
straw. The fermentation the mass undergoes makes a large 
quantity of the otherAvise indigestible food available, and ex- 
perience has shown that in this way the cost of the mixed 
feed need not be over one dollar a ton, while it is worth 
for feeding at least ten dollars. Indeed the silo has solved 
for the farmer the question of profitable feeding of sheep; 
for if one acre of silage will feed one cow one Winter, it will 
feed seven sheep, and this is but one half as much as has 
been shown to be easily possible for a dairyman to do with 
his cows. Ihis fact may interest thousands of farmers who 
are asking if the feeding of sheep on a farm can be made 
profitable. There is not a locality in the whole Union, in- 
cluding our neighboring enterprising Canadians, in which 
this exceedingly profitable business may not be carried on 
with entire success. It need only be done with caution, 
with those inexperienced, to begin with a small flock and 
feel their way to larger enterprise in good time. 

This enterprise is well adapted to the restoration of worn 
down lands, on the thousands of farms in the Eastern part 
of the Union. Any of these farms may be made by moderate 
fertilizating, to produce fodder corn, oats, rye, and turnips, 
with many of several easily grown green feeding crops, 
such as oats and peas, rape or millet. The feeding of those 
of these crops best adapted to it by the sheep on the ground 
will afford an adequate manuring to yield a good crop of 
com, and double the yield of the first crops grown the first 
year. This is a far easier enterprise, and less laborious and 
freer from risks than the dairy. It costs less money to start, 
and brings its rewards in less time. 



142 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



TABLE OF NUTRITIVE VALUE OP FOODS. 

100th air dry mat-i;er.— grasses green. 



Kinds of Fodder. 



Common Vetch 

Young red clover 

Clover, full bloom 

Alfalfa, young 

Alfalfa in bloom 

Beans, ripe 

Bean pods and stalks dry 

Peas, early, green " 

Peas, dry 

Cow peas 

California broom grass 

Bermuda grass 

Southern crab grass 

Texan Millet 

Blue grass 

Red top 

Mountain oat grass 

Buffalo grass 

Blue joint 

Wild oat grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Orchard grass, ripe 

Red top, young -. 

Red top, earlybloom 

Timothy, young 

Timoth5^, "full bloom. 

Orchard grass, ^^oung 

Orchard grass, full bloom 

Green leaves of trees in woods . 
Dwarf Essex Rape. 







,n3 






















.s 




u 




o 


Wt^ 


n 


i^ 


^ 


to 


fe 


4.53 


25.14 


35.26 


13.06 


7.03 


24-50 


46.06 


11.15 


4.38 


17.50 


47.42 


14.55 


3.88 


27 30 


38.80 


12.00 


2.63 


15.75 


47.94 


20.78 


1.93 


25.09 


59 15 


3.43 


1.36 


3.50 


58.74 


21.60 


.55 


4.37 


14.48 


1.66 


2.52 


19.91 


65.98 


7.98 


4.63 


17.19 


49.11 




2.30 


8.50 


42.67 


22.91. 


1.83 


9.16 


46.06 


20.16 


2.42 


8.38 


36.59 


27.50 


2 12 


4.70 


47.07 


23.16 


2.43 


5.37 


56.50 


17.87 


1.97 


9.09 


48.53 


21.01 


3.43 


7.50 


48.10 


22.42 


2.67 


7.35 


49.58 


19.41 


2.59 


6.90 


49.87 


21.98 


3.02 


6.84 


46.80 


25.98 


2.45 


9.89 


44.96 


23.94 


2.99 


7.21 


46.92 


21.35 


3.50 


12.25 


50.03 


19.47 


3.38 


11.88 


50.84 


20.20 


4.20 


11.55 


50.05 


18.35 


3.35 


9.28 


55.22 


20.55 


3.88 


15.05 


47.94 


17.68 


3.03 


8.92 


50.32 


23.78 


4.50 


15.60 


45.61 


39.00 


3.80 


12.86 


42.47 


18.96 



1—1.24 
1— 20 
1— 30 
1— 1.6 

1—3.2 



- 5.3 

- 5.2 
-4.7 
-10.5 
-11.0 

- 5 6 

- 6.9 
• 7.1 

- 7 6 

- 7.3 

- 4.8 

- 7.0 

- 4.4 
■ 4.6 

- 4.7 

- 6.3 

- 3.4 

- 6.0 



Mixed meadow hay. . . . 

Red Clover 

Alfalfa 

Vetch 

Peas and oats in bloom. 

Timothy 

Wheat straw 

Barley straw 

Oat straw 

Corn stalks 



2.50 


9.4 


41.00 


26.00 


2.20 


12 3 


38.20 


26.00 


2.56 


16.00 


31.6 


26.00 


2.35 


19.80 


28.5 


23 40 


3.6 


14.3 


34.2 


25.2 


3 


9.7 


45.8 


22.7 


1.20 


4 6 


36.9 


43.0 


1.40 


3.3 


32.5 


43.0 


2.00 


4.0 


36.2 


39.5 


1.00 


3.0 


36.7 


40.0 



1— 8.0 
1—5 9 
1— 2.8 
1— 2.3 
1— 4.0 
1— 8.1 
1—45.8 
1—40.0 
1—29.9 
1—34.4 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OP FOOD. 



143 



TABI^E OP NUTRITIVE VAI,UE OF FOODS.— (Continued.) 



Roots. 



Mangels 

Sugar beets. . . 
Ruta-bagas . . . 

Turnips 

Potatoes 

vSweet potatoes. 













^ 


88.0 


0.1 


81.5 


0.1 


87 


0.1 


92.0 


0.1 


75.0 


0.2 


69.7 


0.3 



1.1 

1.0 
1.3 
1.1 
2.1 

1.9 



2- 



9.1 

15.4 

9.5 

5.3 

20.7 

26.3 



0.9 
1.3 
1 
0.8 
1.1 
1.7 






1— 9.3 
1—17.0 
1— 8.3 
1— 5.8 
1—10.6 
1—31.9 



Grains, Dry Matter. 



62i 

U I- 

ceo 



V 






Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Corn 

Buckwheat 

Peas 

Beans 

Cow peas 

lyinseed 

Acorns, ripe 

Sunflower seeds. . 
Chestnut.s, fresh. . . 
Apples and pears . 

Pumpkins 

Squashes '. 



1.5 
2.0 
2 5 
6.0 
5 5 
1.5 
2.0 
1.6 
1 3 

37.0 
2.8 

23.6 
1.6 



0.6 
0.2 



13.0 

11.0 

10.0 

12.0 

10. 5 

9.0 

22.4 

25.5 

21.6 

20.5 

3.5 

13.0 

4.3 

0.4 

0.6 

0.9 



66.4 
67.4 
63 9 

55.7 
62.1 
58.7 
52.5 
45.9 
49.3 
19.6 
46.6 
23.9 
41.3 
11.8 
6.5 
9.1 



3.0 
3.5 
7.1 
9.3 

5.5 
15.0 
6.4 
9.4 
4.7 
7.2 
7.8 
28.5 
2.0 
4.3 
2.7 
1.0 



1— 5.8 
1— 7.0 
1— 7.9 
1— 6.1 
1— 8.6 
1— 7.4 
1— 2.9 
1— 2 3 
1—27. 



1—17 

1—7.2 

1-11.50 

1—43.0 

1—18.4 

1—15.8 



PRODUCTS PURCH.^SABLE. 



Bran 

Pea bran 

Pea hulls 

Sugar beet pulp 

Potato starch pulp. 
Corn starch meal . . 

Palm nut cake 

Oatmeal refuse 

Linseed oil meal. .. 



3.5 


12.9 


59.1 


8.1 


1.5 


13 1 


37.8 


31.1 


2.5 


8.0 


43.7 


30.5 


0.2 


1.8 


18.3 


6.3 


0.1 


0.8 


11.7 


2.0 


2.0 


3.6 


18.8 


3.4 


14.8 


13.5 


41.0 


18.8 


2.3 


7.1 


57.9 


19.3 


2.3 


33.2 


38.7 


8.8 



5.6 
5.3 
1— 9.2 
1—13.9 
1—17.4 
1— 7.4 
1—7.0 
1— 9.7 
1— 1.4 



The preceding table is worthy of special notice and study. 
A large number of these substances may often be purchased 
very cheaply, and some are especially valuable for fattening 
sheep or lambs. Such are, of the grains, oats, in the first 
place, which it will be seen is worth more than corn, w^hile 
this grain is worth more for the flesh malvin'g elements, 
the protein than the corn. The various kinds of pulse, i^eas, 
etc., are seen to be especially rich in flesh-mali;ing elements, 
and thus are valuable for feeding to lambs when growing 



144 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

fast, and as well for fattening sheep, as the protein tends 
to uaake a more useful meat than fat, and the tendency now 
is to favor meat rather than a load of fat on the carcass. 
Turnips and ruta-bagas, among the roots, are seen to be 
well balanced food, and being completely digestible Avithout 
waste, are not only of superior value for this in itself, but as 
well to aid in the digestion of other and less digestible food, 
of which it has been already mentioned that less than half 
is digestible, in some of them. 

It is also worthy of notice that the products of forest 
land are especially valuable for the leaves, as well as for 
the young twigs, which are greedily eaten by sheep and 
form naturally the bulk of the food in wooded localities. 
The author's experience goes to show that the fine brush of 
trees, especially of the small growth, may be cut and 
stacked with great advantage for the Winter browsing of a 
flock, w^hich will feed at a stack of this stuff in preference 
to the hay, or even sheaf oats. This fact is of value to 
Southern shepherds where so much land is left to grow up 
with brush, when throwiu out as old fields for a resting 
spell, to slowly recover its lost fertility. The very common 
sassafras is especially palatable to sheep, which will browse 
down quite large shrubs of it to the roots. The tonic, as well 
as nutritive character of the sassafras, is excellent, and 
tends to keep the sheep in the best of health. Sheep have 
been kept the w^hole Winter in the South on this kind of 
feeding, leaving hay for the small growth of the old fields 
and spending the most of the time in the thicker woods 
rather than pasture on the open ground, although the grass 
may be quite abundant. The sweet potato, too, is eagerly 
eaten by sheep, who will eat off the vines when they are 
fully grown, thus saving a large quantity of excellent pas- 
ture in a season when it comes in very acceptably. South- 
ern shepherds, too, may follow the comm/on method in 
England, and the European countries, where root crops, cab- 
bages, rape and the so-called collards— a kind of cabbage 
which grows up to a tall plant— are grown as the usual Win- 
ter feeding" in the open fields. The really drier climate of 
the Southern Winter, as compared with that of Europe, too, 
adds greatly to the advantage of Southern shepherds who 
by growing these crops will be able to furnish their flocks 



RULES FOR WINTER FEEDINli. 145 

with the cheapest and most healthful out-door feeding, and 
at the same time improve their lambs without cost and even 
at a profit. 

The cow-pea is one of >the best of these green pasture 
plants for the South and middle States, and if gathered 
the vines make excellent hay. . It may be sown in the 
corn or cotton, and pastured as long as it remains green. 
The dry grain of it is seen to be equally valuable as the pea 
or the bean. The common white bean is another neglected 
crop, for a farm flock, as may be suggested by a reference 
to the nutritive value of the pulse, as well as all its products. 
When made into hay with the grain in it, all the pulse tribe 
furnish the richest kind of feed for Winter use, l)oth for a 
store flock, as well as for fattening. 

Pumpkins and squashes are also 'not only nutritious 
food, but healthful, and if chopped may be fed with much 
advantage. The common impression to the effect that thewe 
gourds are undesirable on a<?count of their undue action on 
the kidneys, has no foundation in fact, and the seeds are 
especially useful as a vermifuge. 

RULES FOR WINTER FEEDING. 

It is not altogether the kind of food given to a flock but 
quite as much how it is given, that counts to the full benefit 
of the shepherd. The sheep is a peculiar animal, not 
naturally of a tender character, but one of the hardiest 
races. Under domestication there is no other animal that 
calls for the most careful management of the owner than 
this. It is apt to fret, and soon fall into a poor condition, 
unless fed at regular intervals, aiud these so distributed as 
to secure the full digestion of the food. Once the sheep 
are left unattended to, they become dissatisfied, and food is 
wanted to make up for the loss occasioned by the nervous 
excitement thus produced. The experiment has been tried 
with two flocks, one fed at six in the morning with strict 
regularity, every day, at intervals of four hours, making 
the last feed at six in the evening, when the racks are filled 
for the night. At the third feeding the grain food is given, 
the other three feeds being of coarse fodder, for the first, 
and fourth, and hay for the second. This flock made on the 
■whole fourteen pounds of live weight for the average all 



146 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

through, over a flock fed three feeds without any attentio'u 
to regularity. 

At the first feeding the racks are cleaned out, and the 
waste scattered over the floor. ^The fodder given may be, 
as in the case under notice, of fodder corn, sown in drills 
three feet apart and the seed six inches apart in the drill, 
the variety sown being the Narragansett sweet corn. A 
large majority of the stalks had ears on them, and the fod- 
der cured in small stacks or shocks was bright and green. 
There was no waste in the feeding of this, and the sheep 
required no grain during the feeding of this fodder. 

At the second feeding, bright oat straw, at times sheaf 
oats, was given in the racks, which were well cleaned up by 
the sheep. The third feeding as long as the corn fodder 
lasted, was given of this, and the racks were filled up with 
clover hay for the night. After the appetite of the sheep 
had become well measured by experience, there was prac- 
tically no waste, and this should be made an important part 
of the management, there being much cheaper litter than 
good clover hay. 

But since the silo has been in use, the feeding of silage 
has been found quite as safe and profitable for sheep as for 
cows. Indeed its use has been so remarkably successful 
that doubtless for the farm sheep, as well as for the flocks 
on the ranges, this provision will be the common practice. 
The old, but wofully mistaken impression of the tenderfoot 
shepherd, that sheep would feed themiselves on the opeiu 
range, during the Winters, has brought many a flock and 
its owners to sudden grief, and this has become so generally 
known that this sometime practice, not of supporting, but 
really of destroying a flock, is now a thing of the past, no 
more to be thought of. The ranch sheep must be fed as the 
farm flock is, for there is no profit in stopping the growth 
of a sheep as well as its fleece, for some months, and it must 
be the custom to provide the Winter feeding precisely the 
same as for the farm flock. The rustler among sheep is not 
a profitable animal, and only the well kept flock will pay a 
profit to its master. Consequently there will be fenced fields, 
on which such crops as will suit each location and the 
climate of it, must be grown for the Winter feeding, and the 
silo must be an adjunct to this system. 



FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 



147 



FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 

Necessarily the crops growD by the shepherd must be 
suited to the si>ecial climate of each locality. There are loca- 
tions in the South and Southwest, in which it may be possible 
for the flocks to subsist on the natural growth, but the pre- 
diction may be easily hazarded that the culture of feeding 
crops will be the rule in spite of the existence of natural 
herbage, for the Winter feed of the flocks, not only on the 




ALFALFA SEEDLING. 

farms but on the ranges. Indeed, where land is cheap or 
costs nothing, being yet public property, it will still be the 
most profitable method to feed flocks, quite half the year, 
en grown crops. Fortunately there is so extensive a list of 
crops that will succeed well, some in one locality and some 
in others, that there will be no difficulty, and very little 
cost, in providing the required feed. For one of the most 



148 THE DOMESTIC SHEER 

valuable fodder crops for sheep, the well known alfalfa 
niaj^ be grown In a dry climate, Avhere clover— its near rela- 
tive—does not succeed. Under good culture alfalfa will 
yield several cuttings in the season. In Italy, where it is 
known as lucern, it is extensively grown for feeding, and is 
cut several times in the Summer, making a growth of 
eighteen inches between the cuttings. This great growth is 
procured by irrigation, and the same practice prevails in 
Chili, in South America, where it is called alfalfa, the Span- 
ish name of it. The plant has beetn introduced into Cali- 
fornia, where it thrives exceedingly on the tule lands, or the 
fiat river bottoms, without actual irrigatiofu, and as it is 
naturally used to dry, warm climate, it is one of the best 
feeding crops for sheep, either for ordinary pasture or for 
feeding in racks or in plots, separated by hurdles. This 
plant will grow where clover will not, and is one of the most 
valuable for the shepherd. The seed is sown on well 
plowed land at the rate of fifteen pounds to the acre, pref- 
erably in drills, so that the land may be cultivated iln the 
early growth of the crop. Oiuce established it lasts twelve 
or more years in the ground. 

Winter rye is a useful plant for feeding sheep. On good 
laud it may be made to furnish pasture all the Wlinter, ex- 
cept of course when it is covered by snow, and even then 
the sheep will reach it if the snow is not too deep, by paw- 
ing off the snow. For this purpose the seed should be 
sow^n thickly, at least three or four bushels to the acre, 
and as early as possible to get a good seeding. It will 
afford pasture if desired only for this purpose, until the 
corn is planted, when the refuse turned under makes an ex- 
cellent fertilizer. Where the snow falls lightly, and stays 
but a short time, this crop Avill be found one of the best 
for this use, and cheaply grown.. It is said that this crop 
will continue to grow and make good pasture for two or 
three years, as it will not mature unless it forms seed 
heads. But this is stated, not on personal information, but 
on current report. It is a common practice on farms to pas- 
ture this and some other crops by penning the sheep in 
hurdles, or any kind of light portable fences. Hurdles are 
made in a simple manner in the way shown further on, of 
split saplings of chestnut or other woods, and the pointed 



FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 149 

ends of the stakes are driven into tlie ground by a mallet, 
the ends of the hurdles being tied together by wires twisted 
around the stakes. It is a small work to move a lot of these 
hurdles, as the ground is eaten off, by a wagon, and setting 
them up the desired space ahead. Such a crop as rye, for 
instance, is doubled in useful value by the use of this kind 
of fence. It has been stated by that renowned scientist, 
Liebig, that rye so fed one year will become a biennial as 
mentioned above and produce a crop of grain the next sea- 
son, all the more productive by the well known manurial 
and fertilizing effects of pasturing land by sheep. Indeed, 
the use of a flock for the improvement of land by this 
pasturing is one of the most effective methods of scientific 
culture. 

The vetch or tares is a valuable pasturing crop. It is a 
hardy plant, thriving as far North as Eastern Canada, and 
having as wide a range as clover. 

There are two varieties of this plant, one is the Win- 
ter vetch, the other the Spring vetch. This is a plant of the 
pea family, and is quite as hardy as the pea. We have a 
large variety of this plant growing wild and in the South- 
em mountain regions, where it is frequentlj- found in the 
open woods growing three feet high, and completely cover- 
ing the ground. It has been grown as far North as the 
neighborhood of Montreal, and as far West as that fertile 
tract of territory between Lake Erie and Huron. It ranks 
as a fodder plant equally with red clover, but yields quite 
twice as much feeding as this plant. It thrives best on a 
clay soil, and the soil needs to be thoroughly well worked, 
the surface for four or five inches deep being made as fine 
as possible to ensure the best growth. Doubtless the 
Spring variety will be the better kind for the Northern part 
of this continent, but it may be sown with safety South of 
A^irginia. It may be sown with Winter or Spring rye by 
which the vines are upheld, and thus make a more econom- 
ical feeding crop than when sown alone, with less waste 
by trampling of it by the sheep. But where the lambs are 
folded on it within hurdles, there is little waste in this way. 
This crop is exceedingly valuable on farms havhig a some- 
what worn soil, the nitrogenous character (?f the plant tend- 
ing to enrich it as much as a large quantity of manure would 



150 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP, 

do, tbe droppings of the sheep adding considerably to 
this enrichment of the soil. When this crop is fed to lambs, 
fatteniing for sale, it is desirable to feed a small ration of 
corn to balance the nutritive elements of it, on accomnt of 
the large amount of protejn in it. The amount of seed is 
two bushels per acre, and the best method of sowing is by 
drills twelve inches apart. 

Peas and oats sown together, is another excellent forage 
crop for feeding on the laud, within hurdles, and it has 
also an excellent result in the soil, improving it greatly, 
and putting it in tine condition for wheat following it in the 
Fall. The quantity of seed to be sown is two bushels of 
oats and one and a half of peas. Seeding by the drill is 
the best method, but if sown broadcast, which may be done, 
the peas should be sown first, and covered by the plow four 
inches deep, and the oats then sown and lightly harrowed in. 
This crop is one of the best for all purposes, for green fod- 
der, as well as for ripening, when it is cut and fed with the 
grain, or may be thrashed and the straw fed, while the 
grain is fed separately. This feeding is precisely what is 
needed for the full feeding of store ewes in lamb, as well as 
for fattening with the addition of four ounces of linseed-oil 
meal per day to each sheep. 

Eape has become exceedingly popular with the most ad- 
vanced sheep farmers of late. During the past three or 
four years it has been made the subject of many experi- 
ments at the various stations where it has been mostly fed 
to feeding lambs in preparation for the market. The Min- 
nesota Station has given the most thorough attention to this 
subject, having fed a large number of lambs for market on 
this crop. The Spring variety has been used, the Winter 
kind being better adapted to a less rigorous Winter climate. 
This variety may be made especially useful in the South, 
where it will withstand the Winter and furnish early feed- 
img, so that the land may be plowed for cotton or com, as 
a following crop. Like all this class of plants, it needs a 
fertile soil, and the best kind of culture. Three to five 
pounds of seed to the acre is used, being preferably drilled 
in rows fifteen to eighteen inches apart as the land may be 
less or more fertile, the wider space being the best for the. 
richer soil on account of the heavier growth. Being a deep- 



FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 151 

rooted plaiiit it easily recovers after liaviug beeu fed dowu, 
and tlie improveiiieut of tlie laud for a succeeding cro-p is 
well worth all the cost of it. 

On the most fertile soils thirty inches between the rows 
has been fouud the most desirable, the plauts meeting in 
the rows and completely covering the ground. It requires 
the whole ground to itself, the dense growth quite prevent- 
ing grass seed from growing. Indeed, on the farm where 
sheep are kept for the improvement of the land it is grown 
with this second purpose, as well as for the feeding of the 
stock. There is no other crop which goes so far in this 
way to verify the common adage about the golden foot of 
the sheep, for it is most profitable in both ways. It shapes 
the land so densely by its thick and rapid growth that 
weeds have no chance to survive, and making a weak growth 
are smothered in their infancy, as it were, and are 
completely exterminated. The culture of the land as well. 
is an excellent preparation for the succeeding crop, and thus 
the keeper of sheep, if he will, as the saying goes, kiW two 
birds with one stone. 

It is rapid in its growth. At two months after sowing it 
is ready for feeding down or for cutting. The illustration 
here given shows a two months old plant, taken from 
nature by the truthful camera. Of course cutting and feed- 
ing in racks is the most economical method of feeding, 
although somewhat more laborious than to have the lambs 
or sheep gather it for themselves, and while the waste 
of the crop left after the folding on the land goes to add 
a valuable majiure to the soil, yet by feeding it -off the 
ground we get all the waste left by the flock in doubtless a 
better and more easily available form, and the return from 
the feeding in additioo. 

The illustration is taken from a bulletin of the Wis- 
consin Station, where an experimental crop was grown for 
feeding lambs for market. The crop was grown on land in 
ordinarily good condition, but the yield made goes to show 
the importance and value of this crop to the shepherd of all 
branches of his pursuit. A third cutting was made, which 
yielded on October 22nd, 2,218 lbs., the total yield from this 
plot amonntin-g to 7,669yo lbs., on one-tenth of an aciT, thus 
making over thirty tons to the acre. 



152 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



An easy way to make this crop most useful is to grow it 
adjoining a grass pasture so that the green stuff may be fed 
in racks on the grass, and by moving the racks a little every 
day get the whole of the pasture evenly manured by the 
droppings. This is far more economical than folding the 




t!:,^':s*\ 






#' B 



%^^ 



^^":. 



TWO MONTHS' OLD RAPE PLANT. 

sheep on the rape, by which a good part of it is trampled 
down, and goes to waste as feed. 

In this experiment the rape was fed to hogs, and steers, 
as well as to the lambs, proving it to be equally valuable 
for this use as well. Unfortunately it is not adapted for the 
silo, at least it has not been thought to be, but as the Ger. 
man and French beet growers, for making sugar, ensilo the 



FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP 158 

leaves of the crop, it is scarcely to be doubted that this 
might as easily be subjected to this process as well. As 
rape is a close relative to the cabbage, which is kept in 
good coudition through the Winter in pits, as will be de- 
scribed in a succeeding page, the experiment might reason- 
ably turn out to be successful and this crop saved for Win- 
ter feeding. As rape contains nearly one pound of sulphur 
in a ton of it, and this is an indispensable ingredient in 
w^ool, in which there is more than three and a half pounds 
of it in a hundred pounds of the wool, this is a matter of 
great importance in regard to the feeding of sheep for the 
lieece, for it is a rule, in both plant and animal growth, 
that every element in the composition of any product must 
be fully supplied as regards all of them, or the product will 
be deficient in quantity or in quality in proportion. The 
wool grower thus must see that every element of the 
fleece must "be supplied or the weight or quality must be 
reduced. 

.This plant has been extensively tried and has been 
found valuable and successful everywhere from Minne- 
sota and Wisco-nsin, to Missouri, Kansas, Arizona, in the 
Southern States (where the Winter variety may be grown) 
and all through the middle States and Canada. Several 
communications to The American Sheep Breeder, from cor- 
respondents have been published in that Journal, testifying 
to the value of this crop. From these, two are selected as 
showing the value of this crop. One from Kansas, says: 

"I live SO south and 60 miles east of Kansas City. On 
April G I sowed broadcast 10 pounds of Dwarf Essex rape 
seed on a little less than two acres of grouind. Notwith- 
standing we had a very cold, backward Spring, it came up 
and grew rapidly. On May 20, at which time it was fully 
knee high, I turned 96 head of ewes and lambs on it, only 
for a short time at first, but afterwards allowing them to 
eat their fill of it twice a day, when they would be turned 
back on grass pasture. At the time I turned the sheep on 
it it was very dry, and continued so for two weeks, yet it 
has furnished feed for the 96 head for three weeks, and it is 
not all eaten up yet. I find that it should be sown on rich 
soil, where the surface is free from clay, for good results. 
One corner of my patch was a clay soil, and in that corner 



154 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 

the rape did practically no good, but where the soil was 
rich I never saw anything grow faster or more luxuriant. It 
was an experiment with me, as I had never seen any of it 
before, but I am satisfied that rape is a success in Southwest 
Missouri. Shall sow a twelve-acre cornfield with it next 
mouth for fall pasture." 

The other is from Ohio, and runs as follows: 
"1 sowed 22 acres of corn with rape sown ahead of the cul- 
tivators at last cultivating, July 15th, and made an immense 
lot of feed. Turned the lambs in the cornfield the latter 
part of August, and kept them there most of the time until 
after the corn was husked. I next turned in 52 ewes and 12 
head of cattle until January 10th. Fed little else excepting 
a light hay feed occasionally when the weather was too 
rough to turn stock in the field. A year ago I advocated, in 
the Sheep Breeder, one pound of seed to the acre for the 
corn field. My second year's experience justifies my early 
judgment. The thorough cultivation of the corn kills the 
weeds and leaves the rape an uninterrupted growth in the 
protecting shade of the corn where it makes a luxuriant 
and bushy growth, much better indeed than when sown alone 
in the open field. I think this the cheapest way to secure 
a great lot of very valuable feed in the corn belt states. The 
22 acres gave me 2,110 bushels of corn in the ear and from 
150 to 200 tons of rape, the com not in the least affected 
by its companion crop of rape." 

The latter is interesting as showing the value of this 
crop groT\TQ in the way described, as a catch crop, as it is 
termed, that is, one pushed in, as it were, between two 
other crops, thus filling a space that would otherwise be un- 
occupied, and not only providing, as is told in this plain 
story, a valuable lot of feed, but of occupying land that 
would otherwise have iDeein idle and growing useless weeds. 
One of the most important lessons a farmer can learn and 
apply to his ijractice, is, that land should never be idle, but 
always growing something of value for feeding to some kind 
of stock, to make profit; and thus exemplifying the adage 
taken for the motto of thisi work; and asi well to. show 
bow easily this double profit may be made, and to prove 
another old saying (of Cicero), to the effect that "feeding 
animals is the most important part of agriculture," and we 



ROOTS. 155 

may add that the sheep meets this sentimeut more closely 
than auy other domestic animal. 

ROOTS. 

Koots of various kinds are one of the most valuable of 
the succulent feeding crops for the flock. They are easily 
grown, are exceedingly productive, yielding under good cul- 
ture from twelve to thirty tons to the acre, and may be kept 
when properly stored all the Winter; and some of them as 
l£Lte the next year as July. They are the most economical 
feed for sheep, for one reason especially, which is that the 
matter of them is perfectly digestible and there is no loss 
by waste in this respect. They may be cheaply grown under 
the right culture, which consists of a fertile soil well 
manured, during the Winter, or liberally fertilized in the 
Spring. Fall plowing is desirable as the second plowing in 
the Spring thoroughly fines the soil, and mixes the decayed 
manure— applied previously— with the soil. It is desirable 
to give two han-owings, one immediately after the Spring 
plowing, and the second in two or three weeks after, 
and immediately before the seed is sown, so as to check the 
growth of weeds as much as possible, and force a rapid 
start of the young plants. This is especially desirable on ac- 
count of the tender growth cf them, and the slight root hold 
taken on tho soil, by which too early a disturbance of the 
soil is injurious to the crop, if dry weather should occur. 

Six pounds of seed is sufficient, but the drill should be 
used for the seeding. For extensive culture, double drills 
are used by which two rows are sown at once. The rows 
should be from six:teen inches (for beets) to twenty-four or 
thirty (for turnips or manigela) apart, giiYi!ng ample room 
for the use of the cultivator for working the crops. It is es- 
pecially necessary that the seed should be fresh, especially 
as to the beets and mangels, the capsules in which the seed 
is enclosed frequently being eaten into by mice, and the 
.small seed within them being eaten out. This is frequently 
the cause of thin seeding, by which a large part of the crop 
may be lost. The young plants are thinned out to twelve 
inches in the rows for all the kinds except sugar beets, 
which need but ten inches of space between the plants. 
The extra plants are cut out wMth a sharp hoe, when the 



156 THE DOMESTEC SHEEP. 

growth is sufficiently strong to prevent the injury of others 
to be left, by the disturbance of the soil about them. 
For a small crop of an acre or two, the culture may be 
made most conveniently by means of hand implements, 
seed drill and cultivator, and the thinning of the plants 
may be done most easily by running the hand cultivator 
across the rows cutting out the plants in the ten inch spaces, 
leaving four inches undisturbed wnth the plants thereon. 
This saves much handwork and time otherwise spent. The 
land needs to be clean at the start, made so most conven- 
iently by taking a crop of corn previously, which sho.uld be 
carefully kept free from weeds as a preliminary to this 
following crop. 

Bfefore the plants meet in the rows, the leaves covering 
the intermediate spaces, culture may cease, and the crop 
will take care of itself. When ready for harvesting the crop 
is gathered in the following manner: With a sharp hoe, 
ground to a fine cutting edge, one goes down a row chopping 
off the tops and drawing them into the row in which he is 
walking. He returns up the next row cutting the tops in 
the same way, thus gathering the tops of two rows in4;o one. 

Another goes through the rows following the first one, 
and wdth a blunt, three-pronged hook, draws out the roots 
and leaves them in the vacant row next to that in which 
the leaves are gathered. Returning as before described, the 
workman takes the next row leaving the roots with those 
in the previous row. Thus there are double rows in the 
field, one of the tops and one of the roots. It is best to do 
this work when the land is dry, and the roots are clean 
and free from excess of soil. The tops are gathered and 
may be heaped in the field on high ground, where water will 
not lodge, and covered, first with straw and then with soil, 
sufiicient to preserve them from a possible frost. The roots 
are gathered in the same way and so protected until they 
may be finally taken to a cellar or put away in pits in the 
field. This is done by heaping them in piles of ten or twenty 
bushels, and covering them with strawy and then with soil 
sufficient to protect them through the Winter. Eight inches 
of straw and the same of earth over this will serve to keep 
them safely. 

Roots improve by keeping in this way through the Win- 



ROOTS. 1 o? 

ter, losiiij? some of their moif^ture, and, ripening compleloly. 
become more nutritious as the season advances. In feeding 
them they should be sliced or pulped iin a suitable machine 
made for the purpose, and to be procured of the dealers in 
farm implements. A very useful machine may be made 
by any ordinary mechanic in the way here sliown. The 
frame consists of a receptacle for the ro-r.ts cin the top; under 
this is a wooden roller fitted into a round case; under this 
roller is studded with chisel-shapes points of steel, set with 
the bevel up and in rows three inches apart. These work in 
between the other points set in the curved frame as shown 
in the opened end of the machine. The space under the 
roller is open to let the roots come in contact with these 




ROOT PULPER. 

pointed scrapers, which tear the roots into pulp as they are 
drawn between the moving and the stationary pointed 
chisei-edged scrapers; the pulp falling into the receptacle 
beneath, whence it is shoveled into baskets to be carried 
to the sheep which are fed in troughs. A crank handle is 
of course fitted on the end of the shaft of the cylinder, 
which is left exposed in the drawing to show the manner of 
fitting the machijie. By furnishing both sides of the outer 
cylinder Avith these scraping stationary teeth the machine 
may be worked either way. A full grown sheep will eat 
twenty pounds of this pulp daily when fully fed. 

The most desirable other roots are the common white 
globe turnip for the first feeding, the ruta-baga for the 
next feeding. Of the mangels, the long red is the mo.«;t 
productive, twenty to thirty tons per acre being easily pro- 
duced under good culture. Lane's American sugar beet is 
the preference of the author, who has grown as much of it 
as of the lomg red mangels, and roots of twenty pounds each. 



158 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

the sugar coutent of which has averaged twelve per ceiit, 
thus making this root a most valuable one both for quantity 
and nutritive value. Under the high culture of the best 
English, and indeed some American farmers, the long red 
mangel has produced fifty tons to the acre, and considerably 
over at times. The yellow globe mangel is preferred by 
some, but is not so easily grown as the long red variety, 
which has made roots weighing seventy pounds each at 
times. 

ENSILAGE. 

The introductioi of the silo made some twenty-three or 
four years ago. and of which the first mention was made 
by articles in the American Agriculturist by the author, 
has practically revolutionized the Winter feeding of cattle, 
and equally may do so for sheep. For as this bulky food is 
specially adapted for ruminating animals, the sheep is 
equally interested with the cows in this vast improvement 
in the fodder supply. This term is fully justified by the fact 
that silage will feed one cow per acre of land for a winter 
under ensilage crops, at the least, and twice this is possible. 
This being so, it follows that one acre of land should be able 
to feed foiurteeu silieetp a wliole winter, taking the average 
equalization of seven sheep being fed as easily as one cow. 
But on the most reasonable figuring, these results may be 
safely calculated upon. 

One acre of good corn ensilage will yield fifteen tons, 
or 30,000 pounds. Ten pounds ac day will make a good ration 
for a sheep, so that one acre will afford three thousand ra- 
tions. Feeding two hundred days in the year there is a sup- 
ply for fifteen sheep for a long Winter. A two hundred 
pound sheep will eat one peck of roots a day, which is fifteen 
pouinds, and twenty pounds a day is heavy root feeding. 
But roots have an average of about ninety per cent of 
water in them, while ensilage has only an average of sixty 
to seventy per cent and some times less than this. So that 
we may figure on one-fourth less ensilage for a ration than 
of roots, and this of course adds to the feeding value of the 
ensilage. 

The practice of ensilage is based on the fact that any 
green fodder, solidly packed into an air tight receptacle, un- 



ENSILAGE. 159 

(lergoes a process of fermentation, by which considerable 
heat is produced. That in this development of heat a large 
quantity of carbonic acid is formed, by the fermentation 
of the moist vegetable matter. That carbonic acid, being 
considerably heavier than air, it forces or lifts the air con- 
tained in the silo among the fodder, with which it is filled, 
quite out of the mass, and thus practically seals it against the 
future entrance of air, and thus once the fermentati(n is com- 
pleted the silage is preserved for an indefinite time. When 
the author studied this matter of emsilage at one of the great 
French sugar beet farms connected with a sugar factory, 
the leaves of the beets were then being packed into a silo, 
then r. mere pit in the ground, as they had consisted of 
during more than a century, or several of them, during 
which they had been common in parts of Europe, especially 
in Huoigary, where they were used for presei*ving green 
corn stalli.s. One of these pits was opened after having been 
kept for three years. The leaves of the beets were taken 
out and fed to the oxen by which the beets were drawn to 
the sugar factory. And they were in the very best condi- 
tion of preservation, only having a brown color, as the result 
of the heat by which they were partly cooked. These leaves 
were eaten with avidity by the cattle, and it was their 
staple food for the year rouind. This ensilage was called 
brown hay. 

Since then these simple pit-silos were greatly improved 
by the European farmers, especially by those of sutficient 
means to build expensive stone structures, with cemented 
pits at the bottom of them. But the Yankee— alvrays ahead 
of the world— soon improved on this process, which made 
sour ensilage only, by securing perfect isolation from the at- 
mosphere by which the acid of the silage was produced. 
We owe the discovery of sweet ensilage to Prof. Miles of 
the Michigan Agricultural College, by whom the completely 
air tight silo was invented, and this discovery has been of 
such importance to our agriculture as to have made the dis- 
coverer entitled to the thanks, if not more substantial re- 
ward, of the American people. 

Since then the silo has been simplified, and made more 
useful, the device of the round or tub silo having been the 
last addition to the process of ensilage. This silo is by far 



160 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

the most economical and sensible. It is a mere circular tank 
of any size that may be desired, made of two-inch staves 
fitted together as a barrel is, by beveling the joints and bind- 
ing the staves tightly together by strong iron hoops provided 
with screw bolts by which the bands are drawn together. 

It is an easy matter to construct a silo of this kind in 
this way, and much better and cheaper than the ordinary 
square or oblong one. As the principle of the construction 
is the same under all circumstances, only this kind will be 
described. 

This principle is that the silo must be free from moisture 
and entirely air proof. The principle on which the silage 
is made is that it should be packed into the silo as tightly as 
possible, so that as little air may be included among the 
silage as can be avoided. The silage should preferably be 
cut into small pieces or shredded, to secure this indispen- 
sable compactness. Under whatever circumstances a silo 
ia made, or used, these indispensable conditions must be 
secured. 

The round or tub silo is made of narrow staves six inches 
wide, and two thick. The edges of these are beveled to 
the necessary angle to make an exact fit of the edges of the 
staves, precisely as is done in making a tub or barrel. 
It will be evident that each side of each stave should have 
just such an angle or bevel as will fit tightly and evenly 
along the edges. The most convenient size for keeping 
the ensilage is fifteen feet diameter, which Will make 
it forty-five feet in circumference, or as near this as is 
practicable. There will then be ninety staves in the circle, 
and as there are three hundred and sixty degrees in a circle 
it follows that four degrees must go with each of the ninety 
staves. This equally of course makes two degrees of bevel 
on each edge of the stave. Any one, even if little skilled in 
caiioenter work, will be able to lay off this bevel on the edge 
of the staves, and they are then ready for setting up. 

Necessarily the foundation is of the greatest importance, 
for this must be water and air tight. It is best made of 
cement in the shape here shown. Tlie foundation should be 
dug out two feet or so but it must be made in dry ground, 
otherwise it is well to lay two rows of drain tile across it 
to avoid any burst of water up through the bottom. 



ENSILAGE. 



161 







FOUNDATION FOR A ROUND 
SILO. 



The bottom auid the side of it are then cemented with 
water lime, and three parts of sharp, clean sand, laid at 
least three inches thick and up the edge and under the sill, 
which should be safely bedded in the cement, or well mixed 
mortar of lime and sand, with an equal quantity of the 

cement with tlie lime. The 
sill may be eight inches wide 
and three thick, with a second 
one laid on this four inches 
narrower. To secure the foun- 
dation a bolt is built in the 
concrete or cement, as shown, 
with a broad washer on the 
bottom of it, and this bolt 
should pass through both the 
timbers of the sills, as shown, 
the sills being screwed down 
by the nut on the top of the 
upper one. 

The staves made of dry, sound. 2x4 inch pine, are then 
set up. They are supported at first by stays in the inside, 
and outside as w^ell, besides being bolted to the upper part 
of the sill. The sills are of course cut in rounded sections, 
to make the circle desired. 

When the staves are set up and secured against falling, 
a hoop of two-inch iron, half an inch thick, and bent to the 
curve in a tire setter, as for a tire, is fitted on three feet 
from the ground supported in any convenient manner in 
their place, until they are drawn together by bolts and 
flanges made at each end of each strip. As soon as the first 
is fitted the next is put in place, four feet above the first 
one, and secured in the same manner. This is done to the 
top where the last one is placed four inches from it. 

As the staves are set up, those where the doors will come 
for emptying or tilling the silo are cut out of each stave in 
such a way that, being held together by strong bands, they 
will fit in and may be taken out as may be needed. Or 
they may be hinged if desired in any convenient way. 
but opening inside. 

The doors should come between the bands, so that they 
do not interfere with them in any way. Of course the 



163 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

doors must be carefully fitted so as to preserve the condi- 
tions required in the silo. 

A conical roof is put on, and the thing is complete. It 
is a desirable plan to build this silo in the corner of the barn 
or feeding shed, so that the silage may be thrown out, and 
two rows of doors, one outside for filling, and one imside for 
taking out, may be put in for convenience of use. The roof 
must of course be rain and snow proof. The outside should 
be painted two coats of the iron paint, 

FILLING THE SILO. 

Corn grown, as mentioned previously, that is iln rows 
three feet apart and spaced in the rows eight inches apart, 
is the best crop for ensilage. It may be cut when the grains 
are glazed or left to fully ripen, and if they are partly dry 
it is in no way hurtful. If they have been nipped by a frost 
or are too dry for the full degree of heating and fermenta- 
tion, they should be wetted freely when they are put into the 
silo, and trampled down as firmly as possible, especially 
around the edge of the silo so as to force out as much of the 
air as possible. It will be a saving of the top of the silage 
if it is covered for a foot or two with dry chaff or cut 
straw. This will absorb the dampness escaping as the 
silage heats, and ferments, and save the top for a few inches 
which would otherwise mold by the action of the escaping 
heat and dampness. 

Any green crop may be ensiloed. And it is a good way 
to use surplus straw to cut it and pack it in with the green 
stuff, either mixed or in layers. Dr. Voelcker, in his experi- 
ments made for the Koyal Agricultural Society of England, 
found that this mixture of straw, even in a barn mow, with 
quite green clover or other similar stuff, in layers of a foot 
of each, has been so favorably acted upon by the moist heat 
that the whole has cured perfectly, and increased the straw 
in feeding value to an equality with the clover. Thus by 
this method, a commonly wasted product may be utilized 
by the silo with much economy. In taking out the silage 
for use it is not necessary to cover the fresh surface, as this 
has been cured so thoroughly by the heat of the silo as to 
keep in good condition until it can be used for the feeding. 

Sheep must not have sour food; but the little acidity 



FEEDING LAMBS 163 

occurring iu a silo, even only moderately well managed, 
is not injurious to them. The common ration of ten pounds 
a day for a full grown sheep would be equal to seventy 
pounds a day for a thousand pound steer or cow, so that 
about six pounds a day for an average sheep will be gen- 
eraly sufficient along with such dry food as hay or oat straw, 
or any of the dry fodders. Too much silage is apt, as roots 
Avill, to keep the sheep dirty on account of the looseness alwaj's 
due to succulent food. Silage thus made, will have grain enough 
to make a full ration, without othej grain food, except a 
hamdful of bran to counteract any possible looseness of the 
bowels. 

FEEDING LAMBS. 

The following letter from the facile pen of Jos. E. Wing 
of Ohio, tells a pleasant and "ower true story" on this sub- 
ject of feeding lambs. It appeared in the columns of the 
American Sheep Breeder, quite recently, and doubtless 
it will bo read with interest and profit to all concerned: 

"Apples of gold in pitchers of silver!" That is the pleas- 
ing characterization of "words fitly spoken" made by one 
Mr. Solomon some years ago. When is a word more fitly 
sipoken than when one man tells another that his honest 
efforts are appreciated and his good intantions recognized? 
Thanks, kind friends, for your generous esteem, and thanks, 
genial editors, for your rather ujprofessional way of letting 
one reader say kind things of another. 

Let me see, "where was I at?" Well, when last I wrote 
w^e could not turn in any direction on Woodland Farm 
without seeing sheep and lambs, Moiitanas in the big barn, 
ewes at the little bam and w^hite-fleeced lambs playing in 
the alley ways and munching their corn meal and bran in 
their feeder. 

Now they have all gone to Buffalo, the drafts have all 
come back and gone to bank, and it is time to take account 
of profits. For there are profits, this year, as nearly every 
year, while we have not grown suddenly rich the balance 
is on the right side of the ledger. We like to tell of the best 
things. Our best was a small matter, little considered, 
and given little time or attention and from which little was 
expected. Its outcome was a surprise to us. 



164 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Here are the details: 

21 lambs, weight 1280 lbs, price $5.75 $73.60 

22 ewes, weight 2480 lbs, price $3.60 89.28 

24 fleeces 24.00 

$186.88 

Expense— 24 ewes at $3 $72.00 

5 tons hay 20.00 

100 bushels corn 25.00 

1 ton wheat bran 12.00 

129.00 

Balance profit $57.88 

Two of these ewes died and I kept at home some of the 
ewe lambs, so that the real profits are greater thau these 
figures, but these are the actual sales thus far, and there is 
no guess work, as the ewes actually went with their lambs 
to market, only I have guessed a little as to the amount of 
hay and grain consumed, as they were fed along with the 
other ewes that have not been sold, but I think that I have 
allowed very liberally for the amount of food eaten. 

Now it is literally true that this lot of stuff did not re- 
ceive twenty minutes a day of attention. A self-feeder was 
kept tilled with conimeal andwheatbratiaud to this the lambs 
went at will, and the ewes Avere mainly fed on clover and 
oat hay atod ear corn thrown to them in their hay mangers, 
which are the ones that have troughs in combination. A 
little oil meal was given the lambs and I think that it was 
a decided benefit, and have not charged it to them, because 
I am confident that I have charged them with too much of 
other things, and I do not know just what amount of it they 
ate. These lambs were dropped in March from common 
ewes with a dash of Shrop blood in some of them and were 
sired by our Dorset ram, Alan. They have made us 
more monej^ than the earlier lambs dressed at home and 
sent by express to New York, when the trouble of dressing 
and shipipng is taken into account. 

If these profits are much less than sometimes reported, 
let us remember that days of great profits on small trans- 
actions are, perhaps, about over in this world. 

I am sure that the fertility left on the farm by these 
sheep, as by all our sheep, much more than paid for the 
trouble of caring for them. 

When the last of the fat lambs was on the car and be- 
fore the draft could get back to vex us we threw our cares 



FEEDING LAMBS. 165 

and old overalls lu the corner of the woodshed, gathered up 
our fishing-tackle, blanliets and "tarpaulin," raided the 
wife's stores for a few loaves of bread, a hunk o' bacon, not 
forgetting frjing pan and coffee pat, and away for the rush- 
ing stream and a few days of the dear old camp life. 

What a delight it all wasi We felt like boys out of 
school; the miles of lovely Ohio fields flew past, and before 
nightfall our little tent was pitched by a great rock under 
the green lindens, and across tLe tiny meadow of the glen 
the river gurgled and splashed with constant soothing. What 
a rest it was. How the tense and ragged nen'es relaxed, 
and the spirit ceased to chafe the flesh or reproach it for 
lack of energy. What a sense of peace pervaded the rock- 
walled glen. To lean against the cliff inspired one with 
calm. Here wavS something changeless, something that one 
could bet on, not up to-day and down to-morrow, like a con- 
founded market. How we clambered up and down the 
rocky trails wondering with the old wonder at the 
deep pools of greeaa water, at the fallen rocks 
crowned with green shrubs and sturdy hemlocks. How we 
caressed the clinging ferns, anchored each one in its rift of 
stoiie. How we threw flies in the deep pools, each one hold- 
ing a prodigy of a bass if only Ave could have "luck." How 
we caught, at least some of them, and how we made the 
dear old-fashioned camp fire and fried the bacon and fish 
as in our younger days, and then the dear, weak, smoky, 
old-fashioned coffee without cream, drank steaming hot from 
tin cups, and the lying on our blankets under the stars, 
the camp fire burning low, and the old memories of happier 
days when the blood of youth coursed swiftly through our 
veins. The jokes we told I The songs we tried to sing (with 
voices cracked, some from calling sheep), and how we lay 
in our tent awake long hours of the night listenitng to the 
murmuring river and wondering why Mother Earth was so 
much more solid-meated than she used to be, or our bones 
so much nearer the surface, and then in the early dawn 
how the little wrens called to each other along the cliffs and 
the vireos and warblers and all the rest of the woods' crew 
told their pleased expectations, and how we arose at sun- 
rise and felt refreshed and glad that we were alive and that 
we were on this dear, dewy, delicious green old earth! Oh, 



brother shepherd, 1 assure you it will pay you to get awaj' 
from your work and your cares now and then. Don t go to 
the cities, either, reeliing with bacteria and stale beer, 
pervaded with avarice and bunco men. Why, I got home 
yesterday, and am at least three years younger than. I was 
last week. 

And, now what? Why, we will do it all over again, of 
course, and try to do better. Already we have our iirst 
loads of alfalfa hay in the barn and are planning to get 150 
or more after it. And it shall be cut early and the leaves 
shall all be on it, and it shall be nicely cured and smell sweet 
enough to scent my lady's handkerchief. And the corn, too, 
it has been dressed with many a load of manure from the 
sheds, and when summer days come we shall keep the 
ground loose and the weeds out and it will, I am sure, 
grow and yield the big piles of white and j^ellow ears, and 
every one of them almost shall slip down some lamb's 
throat. For lamb feeding is our chosen profession, and no 
tales of profits to be had from the feeding of cattle or swine 
shall tempt us to "try our luck" at one thing or another. 
No, the man who jumps after the departing train, is apt to 
fall in the ditch rather than into the velvet-lined seat that 
he desires. Lamb feeding may not be more profitable than 
other branches of stock feeding, but it is not, on the whole, 
less profitable and it is a science that is learned, generally, 
at the cost of some dear experience. Now^ that I am a shoe- 
maker, I shall stick to my last. 

Lapt year, dating our year as we do from the day the 
last lamb is sold, we fed 625 sheep and lambs for mutton 
and kept besides something like 100 ewes of good blood with 
their lambs. Besides this stock we had some 12 cows and 
10 horses, and perhaps on the average 15 head of swine. 
Except some summer pasture hired, Woodland Farm of 200 
acres has fed ail this stock and carried over this year some 
40 tons of hay and 600 bushels of corn. We bought a few 
tons of clover hay, but sold more than as much of other 
hay. The careful saving and applying of manure did it. 
Also each year we find the farm producing more of this 
manure, and for all that I can see this increase will be con- 
stant from year to year. That is, the more the farm is fed 
the more it will produce, and the more sheep it will feed, 



FEEDING LAMBS. 167 

^d the more we will have to feed the farm with, to feed 
more sheep, to feed mo-re acres of land, to grow more to 
feed the sheep, and so on, to end— where? I care not how 
far the process goes on. I get a small margin of profit from 
each mouth that the farm and I fill. 

What do we grow for stock food? Corn, clover, alfalfa 
and oat. hay. 

What do we like best for a forage crop? Alfalfa. Our 
land is not all dry enough or fertile enough to grow it. Next 
and everywhere available comes red clover. Oat hay, if cut 
when in bloom, is very good indeed amd will make milk 
in ewes or fatten lambs. We seed our clover and alfalfa 
with oats and mow for hay, and thus far have not failed 
to get a good stand. We use no grain but corn for fattening, 
but like oats for thoroughbred lambs or ewes. 

The intensely practical character of Mr. Wing is in no 
way clouded by his love of a pleasant rest, and it savors of 
ancient times, when the shepherds rested under the shade 
of a spreading beech, and sang songs and made love to the 
shepherdesses, whose hands carried the crook, and whose 
care for the tender lambs is set forth so picturesquely and 
pleasantly in the old school book of the Latin poets, which 
every shepherd boy should study, not only for the accurate 
pictures of ancient shepherd life, but as well for the valua- 
ble details of the good management of a flock. It may not 
be out of place in these more serious and essentially prac- 
tical pages, to recommend every shepherd, old or young, 
to procure and study these ways of the old Roman shep- 
herds, who certainly are able to tell us much of present in- 
terest on the subject of the shepherd's pleasant aaid profita- 
ble occupation. It brings us into love with a sheep. 

It will be noticed that the figures given by Mr. Wing 
include the original cost of the ewes in the account, and this 
cost is of course to be added to the profit. The experience 
of the author in feeding lambs, goes to show that this state- 
ment is really under the possible figures of profit, and it is 
to be ccmsidered that to a farmer, the considerable quantity 
of the best kind of manure made is quite sufficient to pay 
well for the time and care spent in the keeping of a flock. 



168 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

FEEDING LAMBS IN A CORN FIELD. 

There are mauj^ wastes an a farm that may be gathered 
up by a flock of sheep. All these count theu to account of 
profit. One of these wastes that is worth many dollars, not 
only for the feed gained, but for the comfort and shade iiu 
the latter days of the Summer, w^hen the sun's burning rays 
bear hard on the w^ooly coats, is the sprouts from the roots 
of the corn, the suckers as they are commonly termed. 
These are eagerly gathered up by the lambs, newly de- 
prived of the company of their dams, and being weaned. 
These lambs wander in the comfortable shade, nipping here 
and there, and feeding well on this agreeable and sv/eetly 
succulent food. It is well to bell a few of the lambs, for 
the old rule of the shepherd, careful against accident, to 
"count your sheep at least once a day, and every time you 
see them," and this soon becomes such a fixed habit that 
one spontaneously complies with it without thinking of it, is 
to be followed constantly. For one lamb or two may be- 
come loose behind and the flies may blow them, and this is 
so almost hopeless a case if neglected, that the lamb, or the 
ewe either, may perish miserablj^ before it is suspected, 
becoming a living prey to those devouring pests. Lambs 
on this account should invariably be docked when two 
weeks old. This is done with the greatest ease, as well as 
their emasculation at the same time, by the use of a pair 
of sharp shears. The lamb is taken under the left arm and 
held so that the skin, being drawn back, the tail may be 
clipped off at one cut. Then the lamb being taken between 
the knees and the scrotum being held conveniently is wholly 
clipped off, the rather rough cut being a preventive of bleed- 
ing. A pinch of blue-stone, finely powdered, carried in a 
pouch at the shepherd's side applied to keep off the flies, and 
stop any bleeding, and heal the wound, completes the opera- 
tion, which is done several times in the time the lines are 
written. 

If the lambs bite one of the low^est ears of the corn it 
will do no harm to it, and the owner will never miss it. 

REARING HOUSE LAMBS. 

Of late years a large market has been made in the large 
cities for early lambs. Formerly these were not able to be 



REARING HOUSE LAMBS. 169 

produced before late in February or March, when at the 
beginuiug of the busiuess, it was easy to get ten dollars for 
a forty pouud lamb live weight. The demand for the 
Easter festival first brought on this industry. The forward 
ewes were highly fed at the end of Summer and coupled 
in September, which is quite possible by high feeding, both 
ewes and the rams, for both must be forced. Tlie demand 
has grown to considerable proportions of late years, and has 
led to the use of Dorset ewes, as the lamb bearers; these 
sheep having a habit of taking the ram at anj- time of the 
year. The high prices paid will return the cost of the ewe 
up to the time of selling the lamb, and for her feeding, atnd 
a hundred per cent profit besides. This is well worth the 
attention of all concerned, within two hundred miles of a 
city, or indeed within twenty four hours of the market, as 
the weather permits of this time for shipment and delivery. 
So that nearl3^ the whole of the Northern States, a large part 
of Canada, and as much of the South, may be included in 
the region in which this business may be carried on. The 
Southern States maj^ be especially favored, in this respect, 
for lambs may be had in the open field, and fed and pre- 
pared for market with far less cost than in any other part 
of this continent, while in the colder North the more expen- 
sive method of house rearing, sometimes with artificial 
warmth, may be needed for the growing of the lambs. 

It goes without saying that there is more profit in selling 
a lamb at eight weeks old, than one at as many months. 
And this is the most prominent fact in this case. The 
method practiced is to breed the ewes (the Dorsets come 
first in this choice of ewes) at the required time, and keep 
them and the lambs in suitable houses, well provided as to 
convenience and healthfulness, feeding them— forcing them 
in fact— to the highest milk product by rich food, and if 
needed by artificial warmth so that the lambs make a rapid 
growth, and become fat for sale at the opening of the 
market, when of course the first offered bring the highest 
prices. The market opens a short time before Christmas, 
when the first demand occurs among those who can well 
afford all the luxuries of life. It is a fact to be considered 
as indisputable, that it pays best to cater for this class of 
purchasers, wiio spend their money without counting it, 



m 



*afi DOMESTIC SHEEP 



on the principle that "easy comes, easy goes." And of lat6 
a good many flocks have been started to supply this increas- 
ing demand, in all the large cities. 

The kind of house required is one of good size divided 
into a number of pens, in which the lambs are kept. It is 
a lamb house in fact, for them alone, the lambs being put 
in it with the ewes for a short time until the ewes are well 
acquainted with their business, when they may be fed in 
another house, or if not too costly a matter the ewes and 
lambs may be confined in the same house. The pens are 
arranged in rows, with broad alley between them. Here 
the ewes are fed Avhile the lambs are kept in the pens. The 



^ 


...i 




't L_ 


1 i t 

A 1 H. 












1 
1 





drawing given shows a lamb house in which two hundred 
lambs may be kept. The building is eighty by forty feet, 
with an additional shed in the front, half the width, of the 
main shed. It is scarcely to be recommendeid to undertake the 
hot house system, with artificial heating, unless one is sure 
of such a market for the lambs as will justify the cost of the 
building, and heating apparatus, which should be supplied 
by steam rather than by any ether method, on account of 
the safety of it. The cost, however, is too great for the 
ordinary lamb grower, whose products will sell later at a 
less price, but with a far less cost and more profit. This 
house will be found amply suitable for a Southern location, 
where the temperature is never too severe for the safe rear- 
ing of lambs coming even in December, or so much earlier 
as to be sent to market in this month. A lamb is really a 



ftilAkiNG HOUSii LAMBS. Itl 

Imnly aiiiiiinl. and if sholterod from the cold winds and rain 
it will withstand a low temperature keeping warm and com- 
forablo bj^ nestling: together in their woolly coats. 

In the house shown, there are tM'o rows of pens for 
lambs at one end, and a long pen for ewes with new-born 
lambs which should stay with the dams a few days, until 
fully hardened to the separation. This ewe pen is forty by 
twenty feet, and has a hay rack around three sides. It will 
hold a hundred ewes without crowding, by the use of the 
adjacent space which is divided off from the rest of the 
house by hurdles. This easy kind of fencing is shown by 
illustration, and it may be moved about without difficulty and 
set up by wiring the ends together by a loop. If set in 
straight rows the low^er ends of the stakes are pointed and 
driven down into holes made by an iron bar in the earth 

floor. They may be set as 
n ^ ^ -R^i shown in one place in dou- 

ble rows, thus forming an 
excellent feeding rack for 
hay. The shepherd will 
very soon find ways to 
ii< n \r~ adapt the principle on 

HURDLE. w^hich this house is con- 

structed to his special needs 
and vary the arrangements to suit these. By providing feed 
racks in the addition to the house, in the manner of a shed, 
with a low^ sloping roof, a considerable addition may be 
mad« to the capacity of the house. 

At times it is necessary to hold the ewes for the lambs to 
suck, and while it is generally the case that the shepherd 
knows his sheep — by their complexion as one omce said — yet it 
is desirable to mark them in some easy way. This is done 
by numbering the ewes and their lambs with a red stamp 
on the right ear, so that in case of need the ewe a»nd her 
lamb may be recognized. The instinct of a ewe is so acute, 
however, that she will easily find the lamb by the soent 
of it. It is quite frequently the case, however, that a ewe 
will be quite neglectful of the lamb, and to insure the due 
attention to the lambs, is by far the most important part of 
the shepherd's business. Ccmstant attention is the secret of 
rearing early lambs if profit is expected. 




m 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



FEEDING GRASS LAMBS. 

When the lambs are weaned they must not be neglected. 
Anything neglected brings all concerned to shame, as the 
proverb says very truly. And a newly weaned lamb will be 
a sorry object if treated with neglect. It is desirable to feed 
the lambs before they are weaned, and while pasturing with 
the ewes. Some little grain food, as chopped oats with as 
much bran, should be given them in a creep in wliich a 
shallow ti'ough is kept with a moderate allowance of the 

grain food. The creep is 
a useful contrivance by 
which the lambs may 
squeeze thiemselves 
through bars held by 
springs, and on which 
rollers are put to avoid 
tearing the fleeces. The 
rollers are arranged 
with springs, and a slot 
in which the ends slide, 
so that they open under 
the pressure of the 
lambs, and close when they have passed through. Constant 
watchfulness is needed to avoid the possible occurrence of 
looseness of the bowels, which is an indicaticn of indigestion, 
and waste of food, but still more of a rapid loss of condition, 
by which the growth may be set bacli a month or more, 
thus destroying the profit of the feeding. A lamb must be 
kept continually growing. It is this steady adA^ance that 
counts. Fits and starts, and frequent stoppage, must not 
be permitted, and it need not be if due care is given. 

An instructive record of the feeding of a large lot of 
lambs is given by Mr. John E. Law of Colorado. He writes: 
"Last winter I made something of a comparative test with 
three classes of lambs— a good sample lot of Mexican lambs, 
a lot of native Colorado Shropshire lambs (bred by my 
neighbor, J. A. Slayton), and my own native bred Colorado 
Delaine Merinos. On Dec. 3d the whole number was 
weighed up and put in pens of about 500 each: 




LAMB CREEP. 



FEEDING GRASS LAMBS. 178 

502 Mexicans, averaging 5414 lbs. 

498 Second Merinos, averaging 43 " 

499 Top Shrops, averaging 58 " 

500 Top Merinos, averaging 52 1-5 " 

WHICH LEFT A 5IIXED LOT OP 

175 Mexicans, averaging 478-10 " 

71 Merinos, averaging 32 " 

242 Shrops, averaging 44 " 

From this time ou all the lambs had all the alfalfa hay 
they could eat; and commeucrjiig with a very light feed 01 
grain, the graiu feed was gradually increased, so that by 
January the three pens of large lambs were eating 4-5lhs of 
a pound per head per day, with the smaller lambs fed not 
quite so much. By Feb. 1st the grain ration had been 
Increased, to about an average per day per head of 1 3-10 
lbs. for the top Shrops, 1 2-10 lbs. for top Merinos and Mexi- 
cans, and 1 1-10 lbs. for each of the two lots of smaller 
lambs. And by March, the feed was raised to 1 6-10 lbs. for 
top Shrops, 1 3-10 lbs. for top Merinos and Mexicans, and 
1 2-10 lbs. for each of the smaller lots. This last amount of 
grain was the ration fed until the lambs were marketed. 
Through the whole feeding they had their grain three times 
per day; and the grain was corn morning and evening, with 
oats at noon, until Feb. 11th, after which it was corn three 
times per day. 

From Dec. 3d to Jan. 4th, the Mexicans gained an aver- 
age of 8 1-10 lbs., the top Merinos 8 5-10, the Shrops S 8-10, 
and the second Merinos and mixed lot each 7 1-10 lbs. The 
gain from this date to Feb. 2d, was: Mexicans, 8 2-10 lbs.; 
top Merinos, 7 6-10; top Shrops. 9 6-10; 2d Merinos, 8; and 
mixed lot, 9 lbs. Feb. 2 to March 3d the gain was: Top 
Mexicans, 7 5-10 lbs.: top Merinos, 9 3-10: top Shrops, 13 
9-10; 2d Merinos, 8 8-10; and mixed lot, 9 1-10 lbs. The next 
weighing was April 1st, w^hich was just following several 
days of stormy, wet, bad weather, and shows a less gain: 
Top Mexicans, 7 7-10 lbs.; top Merinos, 7 6-10: top Shrops, 
8 3-10; 2d Merinos, 7 5-10; and mixed lot, 7 2-10 lbs. This ma-ie 
a gain of from 32 4-10 for the second Merinos to 40 6-10 for the 
top Shrops from Dec. .3d to April 1st— am average net gain, 
for the Avhole lot fed, of 33 4-10 lbs. Of the Shrops. 558 
were sold in Chicago. April 14th,- 421 of which aver- 
aged 97 lbs. and sold at .$6.10. while 137 averaged 86 
lbs. and sold at .$6— this being 15 cents above the price paid 



174 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

for any Mexfcans that day. The mixed lot was sold in Chi- 
cago April 26th, when the balance of the Shrops and the 
small end of the Mexicans were sold separately, both bring- 
ing ten cents below the top price paid for Mexican lambs 
that day, while the extreme small end of the Merinos sold 
very considerably below, April 27th, the second Merinos 
were sold at 20 cents below the top price for lambs that day. 

The top Mexicans and top Merinos were fed until May 
15th, to which date from the first of April both lots made 
an average net gain per head of 2-10 lb. per day. The Meri- 
nos were sold in South Omaha, April 17th, weighing there an 
average of 89 lbs., and bringing a higher price than had 
been paid for lambs in that market before that day. The 
Mexicans were taken on to Chicago, but would have sold 
in South Omaha at 10 cents higher than the Merinos did the 
same day. The Mexicans were sold in Chicago, May 20th, 
averaging 89 lbs., bringing 22iv> cents below the extreme 
top price of the day, principally on account of their heavy 
weight. 

The average shrink of whole lot marketed from home 
weights was a trifle under six pounds. In my experiment, 
the Shrops made the greatest gain of all, Avhile the Delaine 
Merinos kept fully up to the Mexicans, with, as near as it 
was possible, the same feed and care." 

One point of interest in this record should not be missed. 
This is that these lambs were cross-breds, and as a rule it 
has been found that by making the right cross a considerable 
gain may be made over tliat usual in the ewes used for the 
cross. The choice of the rams for the crossing on the ewes 
is therefore of the greatest im^xirtance in the feeding of 
lambs. 

EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING LAMBS. 

Some interesting experiments made in England in feed- 
ing lambs may be noticed. Eight lambs were put in each of 
eleven lots, and fed as here described, making the gain set 
against each lot. 

Lot 1. Consumed 2314 lbs. of turnips per day, and 
gained in fifteen weeks 25^/4 lbs. each. 

Lot 2. Put on grass and fed 19 lbs. of turnips a day, 
gained in the same time 26% lbs, each. 



POSSIBLE GAIN IN A YEAR'S GROWTH. 175 

Lot. 3. Put by side of lot 2, and were shut up at night. 
Fed half a pound of mixed linseed oil-meal and peas, daily, 
ate in addition 20\t> lbs. of turnips. Gain 33^5 lbs. each. 

Lot 4. Put on grass and fed one pound of mixed oats, 
barle3% and beans daily. In ten weeks ate 20 lbs. of turnips 
daily, and gained 2GV2 lbs. average. 

Lot 5. Put in a sheltered paddocic (a small grass lot) 
and shut up in a shed 18 hours in the 24. Fed VA lbs. 
of the mixed grain a day, with 18M» lbs. of turnips daily. 
Gain in ten weeks, 'd'SVj lbs. each. 

Lot 6. The same number of lambs were put in an open 
grass lot, fed one pound of the mixed grain daily, with 24 
lbs. of Swede turnips. Gain in eight weeks, 2114 lbs, each. 

Lot 8. The same number of lambs put in a similar pad- 
dock, with an open shed in it, and were shut up at night. 
Fed the same feed of grain with lot 7, ate 20i^. lbs. of 
turnips. Gain in eight weeks, 24 lbs. each. 

The principal item of interest in these tests ir- the 
effect of shelter on the lambs. This goes to proA^e the state- 
ment made in a previous chapter, to the effect that warmth 
saves food, or its equivalent that the same food, or even less, 
w^ill make more gain in weight. 

POSSIBLE GAIN IN A YEAPv'S GROWTH. 

An essay contributed to the volume of the proceedings 
of the Koyal Agricultural Society of England, gives the fol- 
lowing statement of the growth of lambs during a series of 
years in the months of a whole year from the weaning of 
the lambs. 

AVERAGE GROWTH FOR EACH LAMB. 

April 9 pounds. 

May 16 

.Tune 18 " 

July 15 

August 12 " 

September 12 " 

October 12 '• 

November 8 " 

December ; 6 " 

January ,5 

February 7 " 

March 10 

Total gain for the year 130 lbs. live weight, for the aver- 
age of the flock. 

It is a fact that lambs in confinement, and restless under 
the restraint, never make as much growth as those that are 



176 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

contented. Thus it is always desirable to this end to have 
a few dry ewes run with the lambs for company, when feed- 
ing, the more so, as the time of separation from their dams 
is short. 

Other experiments in feeding lambs go to show that the 
selection of foods is a most important point As for instance, 
an equal number of ewes and lambs were selected as of 
even weights, and quality, at the start. One lot was folded 
on clover, the latter part of May, and given in addition cut 
mangels and a small (luantity of cut clover hay with the 
cut roots. The lambs had the run of a good clover field 
which they reached through the hurdles by which the ewes 
were fenced off. The second lot ran at large on a white 
clover pasture and their lambs run on good red clover. All 
the lambs had a handful of peas once a day. Tn 28 days 
the lambs of the ewes fed on the mangels gained 21 lbs.; 
the other lot gained 18 lbs. This gain of 21 pounds in 28 
days is a remarkable instance of successful feeding, and a 
great recommendation of the root feeding. Mangels contain 
a large proportion of sugar, and are very productive of milk 
in both eAves and cows. 

When confinement appears irksome, something should 
be done to alleviate the dissatisfaction of sheep, whether 
young or old. Here is an instance of the result of dis- 
liked confinement. An equal number of good lambs were 
put into a field of turnips, and itnclosed in movable hur- 
dles. The same number of lambs of equal weight and 
age were put into a yard with warm shed attached to it, 
and fed with roots from the field, and a liberal quantity 
of grain. In eight weeks the lambs were weighed and the 
lot outside in the field had gained an average of 13 lbs. ; the 
other lot gained only 3 lbs. each. This flo-ck was conspicu- 
ously restless, jumping the fence at every opportunity. 
It is an example of the adage "a contented mind i« a con- 
tinual feast," and the shepherd, knowing how it is himself, 
will take care to apply it to his flock. If the sheep desire 
to stay out of a protecting shed, and are happy in their 
choice, it is wise in the shepherd to let them have their 
way, unless it is clearly against the safety of the sheep. 
These— sometimes called— foolish animals know generally 
enough to get in out of the rain when they so desire. 



WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL. 177 

In feeding roots to sLeep, iu any case, it is wise in our 
estimation, to stop at ten pounds a day, for a lamb under 
seventy pounds live weigLt, and less in proportion as the 
age is less. It must be remembered the English lambs 
are to the manor born, as regards the feeding of roots, 
and inheritance uuquestionablj determines the nature of a 
lajub in tliis, as in other respects. So that the American 
shepherd who thinivs of introducing root feeding on the 
Eniglish sj^stem (and this should only be in the absence 
of freezing weather), will be wise to go slow at first, feed- 
ing his way to the safe end, which is only reached by ex- 
perience. This is ahvays applicable to special circumstances, 
which, we have learaed, alter cases. As a rule the Ger- 
man and French experiments in feeding sheep from a 
scientific standpoint, as from results gained at the experi- 
ment stations, have never been so successful as the prac- 
tical feeding on the common farm practices, existing for 
many years, and learned by long personal experience, and 
the rules laid down by the most successful feeders and scien- 
tific experimenters. Something of this may be reasonably 
attributed to the moister climate of England, by which the 
nutritive character of the grass and other feeding crops is 
improved, over and above those of the drier climate of Con- 
tinental Europe. The same difference will doubtless be 
found applicable on our side of the Atlantic. 

WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL. 

This is pre-eminently the age of science. In every part 
of the work of the human race, among whom products are 
cultivated under the present high degree of competition and 
consequent necessary cheapness, the science of every art 
is made the basis of practical work. This applies in a special 
way to the feeding of animals for their valuable products 
as it is applied to the culture of every farm crop. The pre- 
cise composition of every product is studied out by the 
chemists, and their directicns are made the basis of all 
kinds of work, in everj' depai'tment of human industry. 
This has now become the rule and it is indispensable 
that all concerned should live up to it, or the work 
cannot be made profitable. This is so for the 
simple reason that economy must be studied, and it 



178 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

is essential to economy tliat no more material 
should be used to get the desired product of it, than is 
actually needed for it. Otherwise there is waste, and this 
is just so much loss. The result of all this is that in the 
feeding of our domestic animals, our horses, cows, pigs, 
and most of all, sheep, the modern principles of scientific 
feeding is the rule or must be so if the most profit is to be 
made. 

In feeding sheep there are three things to consider. First, 
the animal itself is to be fed on the best kinds of food, those 
by which the animal may grow in the best, most healthful 
and cheapest manner; second, those by which the best 
lamb is produced; aaid third, by which the most and the 
best fleece is insured. Let us consider the last item at this 
time. 

Every product of nature is made up of certain elementary 
substances, and these are to be considered as the basis and 
materials for the special product. If the farmer wants to 
grow wheat or potatoes, or other crops, he. studies the kind 
of materials which the soil must contain for the best product 
of each crop. If he is feeding cows, he uses the best foods 
for making the most and richest milk. If he is feeding 
beef cattle, he uses the most nutritious foods for the product 
of flesh and fat; and if he is feeding sheep, he makes use 
of the foods that make the most growth of flesh and wool,* 
for wool is as much a desirable and profitable product as 
the mutton is. 

Now wool is a specially constituted product, and its 
special character is to be considered in the feeding of the 
sheep. It is made up of much the same elements as flesh 
or skin is. But at this time it is only necessary to notice 
two of these special elements, and these are the nitrogen 
and sulphur which wool contains. These are nearly sixteen 
per cent, or one-sixth, of nitrogen; and nearly four per cent 
of sulphur. In burning wool or hair we experience a spe- 
cially strong and acrid odor. This is the result of the com- 
bustion of the sulphur, and the strength of the odor shows 
the considerable quantity of this element in the 
wool. There is no appreciable difference between the 
wool of a sheep and the hair of an animal; both are a kind 
of hair. But the sheep yields a much greater quantity of 



WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL. 179 

wool than any other animal does of hair. Of course this 
greater product malies it necessary that the sheep be sup- 
plied with a larger allowance of these food elements than 
other animals, just in proportion as the tieece is greater 
in weight. But there is another thing to be thought of, this 
is the fact that the wool is naturally supplied with a greasy 
or waxy substance which is linown as the yolk. This is in- 
dispensable to prevent matting and entangling or felting of 
the wool, on the sheep's back, which would completely de- 
stroy the value of the fleece. So that this yolk is to be pro- 
vided for, and this soapy material contains a large quantity 
of oil and potash which really go to make a sort of soap. 
We learn this fact when we wash a sheep before sheariog 
it. And of course these materials for this large quantity 
of yolk must be supplied in the food. 

Then we have three important substances to supply in 
the sheep's food that are not required in the food of other 
animals. It follows that sheep need special feeding if we 
should have the most profit from the flock. And without 
going into further particulars on this point we may say that 
the foods best suited for the flock are those in which these 
special elements are supplied. These foods are clover hay, 
rape, turnips, cabbages (all of these are rich in sulphur), 
and of grains, oats, peas, beans, bran, linseed oil-meal and 
corn; pea and bean straw may be iincluded in the rough fod- 
ders. Alfalfa will take the place of clover, but the common 
grasses are all deficient in the needed special elements of 
the sheep's food. Thus it is necessary for the shepherd to 
feed a due proportion of these special foods in regard to 
their effect as to cheapness as compared with the common 
grasses, of which the worst of all for a flock is timothy. 
Orchard grass makes one of the best pastures after clover, 
but clover is pre-eminently the main food for a flock. So are 
the roots mentioned, and the secret of success in feeding 
sheep by English, French and German shepherds, lies es- 
pecially in the roots grown for this purpose. This is a most 
important point to consider by every American shepherd. 
The repetition of this remark may be excused as coming 
from many years' experience, and the profound conviction 
of its positive necessity for full success with a flocks 



180 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING LAMBS 
FOR MARKET. 

The experiment stations have exhibited considerable 
enterprise in originating subjects for experiment, and care- 
ful and accurate study. In due accordance with the 
newly awalvened interest in the rearing and feeding 
of sheep some of the stations have instituted a careful series 
of experiments in feeding sheep for marlvct, as a test, not 
only of the value of the various breeds, but of the various 
foods and general management during a lengthened period 
of fattening. Of these we feel chiefly interested in those 
undertaken at the Iowa Station under the direction and per- 
sonal charge of Prof. Curtiss, and those made at the Wis- 
consin Station by Prof. Craig. 

At the outset of his report Prof. Curtiss calls attention to 
the alleged widely established but erroneous belief that 
sheep are only good for eating weeds, on poor worn out 
lands, and that for this use they may be made profitable; 
while it is equally— and we may say consequently— thought 
that they are not fitted at all for feeding on the fertile farms 
on which, in fact and truth, they are really the most profita- 
ble stock that the best and most enterprising farmers can 
keep for making their well cultivated fields more and more 
productive. It may be said that thiis — let us say distinctly 
foolish and ignorant — idea has never been encouraged by 
those persons who know anything whatever about sheep, 
and the special requirements of them for the very best 
possible keeping in everj'' way; but by a few writers who 
have harped on this subject until, as the proverb goes, "a lie 
often told is apt to be taken for the truth." It is quite true 
that any competent farmer, or shepherd, well acquainted 
and experienced with sheep, may take a poor farm and in 
a short time, by the* aid of a flock, bring the land into a 
greatly improved condition, and in due time make it profita- 
ble so that it will yield satisfactory crops of grain or grass, 
and this at very little cost, and sometimes without loss 
from the start. But the belief that any man may keep 
a flock profitably on weeds, or on fields bare of good grass, 
should be discouraged by all concerned in advancing the in- 
terests of the flocks, 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 181 

Doubtless some of the failures that have beeu made— 
and which have led the disappointed persons to feel, as it is 
said the noted Mr. Randolph of Virginia did, when he said 
that he would go a long way to liick a sheeij— have had their 
origin in attempts made to keep sheep that have been 
originated and encouraged by this common assertion as to 
the special adaptability of poor impoverished lands to the 
business of rearing sheep, but have failed disastrously. 

In this experiment the lambs Avere procured from the 
very best sources, and while the Canadian breeders are to 
be complimented on the fact that their flocks were chiefly 
selected as the best sources from which to pro<}ure entirely 
satisfactory lambs for the tests, yet it should be thought 
by the breeders of the United States, as somewhat of a re- 
flection on their enterprise and business test, that a sufficient 
number of good lambs could not be pro^'ured to supply' ma- 
terial for such an important scientific experiment as this. 
The best specimens of each breed Avere very carefullj^ se- 
lected, and as soon as the lambs arrived they were dipped, 
and during the month of August they pastured in a large 
meadow of timothy and blue grass, having a good after- 
math. 

As a preliminary the lambs were treated with turpentine 
and worm poAvders in the usual manner, not so much as a 
remedy for any existing disease, but as a preventive and to 
insure the absence of anything that might interfere with the 
successful issue of the experiments. It is well to know that 
every needed preliminary precautio^n to insure success was 
taken, so that the comparative results given may be received 
with certainty. It is unnecessary to give in full detail the 
whole of the arrangements made for the feeding of the 
lambs, it Avill be sufficient to say that every precaution 
was taken to prepare the lambs in the best manner for the 
tests, and to carry these out Avith true scientific exactness. 
The lambs were gradually led up to the full feeding Avith 
every caution, during a preliminary period of two months. 
It is to be considered in such an experiment as this, 'in 
which the lambs were frequently weighed and subjected 
to disturbances that must necessarily interfere with the 
growth — for no other animal is so easily disturbed in this 
way as a sheep — that there Avill be some allowance to be 



18^ 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



made, which otherwise would have added somewhat to the 
credit of the animals subjected to these experiments. So 
that this must be taken into account as actually going to 
lessen the results of the experi'ments and leaving something, 
at least, to be really added to the credit of the lambs. 

The figures relating to the final result of the experiments 
are given as follows, each breed being noted separately: 

SOUTHDOWNS 

1st Expt. 2d Expt 

Average age of lambs 374 days 289 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) . . . 125 lbs. (Jan. 1) 102.4 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .4.5 lbs. .35 lbs 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.38 lbs. 9.89 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.93 cts. 3.12 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.75 $5.75 

Average per cent of dressed mutton .5.5.4 55.26 

Average weight of fleece 6.75 lbs 4..59 lbs 

Average ageof fleece 366 days 289 days 

Average value of flsece 75 cts, 64 cts 

Average yearly weight of fleece 6.75 lbs. 5.79 lbs 

Average yearly value of fleece 75 cts. 81 cts 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. 11 14 cts. 14 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 54^^ per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition . 26 cts. 



8HR0PSHIRES. 

1st Expt. 

Average age of lambs 371 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn ) . . 135 lbs. (Jan. 

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .48 lbs. 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7. 18 lbs. 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.88 cts. 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.62 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 56.3 

Average weight of fleece 8.75 lbs. 

Average age of fleece 366 days 

Average value of fleece 98 cts. 

Average yearly weight of fleece 8.75 lbs. 

Average yearly value of fleece 98 cts. 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. . 11 cts. 

Average shrinkage in scouring 56M per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. 25 cts. 



2d Expt 
279 days 
1) 126 lbs 
.36 lbs 
10.26 lbs 
3.21 cts 
$5.60 
52.88 
7.83 lbs 
279 days 
$1.10 ' 
10.22 lbs 
$1.44 
14 cts 



OXFORDS. 

1st Expt. 2d Expt 

Average age of lambs 374 days 279 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) ... 155 lbs. (Jan. 1) 136.7 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment ... .52 lbs. .40 lbs 

Average dry matter per i)Ound gain 7.40 lbs. 10.31 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 3.03 cts. 3.22 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 $5.40 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 55.2 50.08 

Average weight of fleece 10.95 lbs. 8.03 lbs 

Average age of fleece 365 days 279 days 

Average value of fleece $1.44 $1.16 

Average yearly weight of fleece 10.05 lbs. 9.38 lbs 

Average yearly value of fleece $1.44 $1.51 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. 12?£ cts. 14^ cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 47 per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition . 24 cts. 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 



183 



STJFFOLKS. 

1st Expt. 2d Expt 

Average age of lambs 394 days 285 davs 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) .. .159 lbs. (Jan. 1) 134.4 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment.. . .55 lbs. .40 lbs 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.40 lbs. 10.36 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain . . ; 2.95 cts. 3.44 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.25 $5.00 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 53.6 52.54 

Average vi^eight of fleece 7.65 lbs. 5.20 lbs 

Average age of fleece 383 days 285 days 

Average value of fleece $0.86 $0.75 

Average vearly wei ght of fleece 7.29 lbs. 6.64 lbs 

Average n early value of fleece $0.82 $0.95 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition.. 11 cts 14^4 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring b4H per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts. 

LINCOLNS. 

Average age of lambs 345 days 291 days 

Average weight (March 31 shorn) ... 158 lbs. (Jan. 1) 143.5 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .55 lbs. .46 lbs 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.29 lbs. 9.1 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.89 cts. 2.86 cts 

Selling price on the Chicago market $4.50 $5.25 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 5.5.7 5i.08 

Average weight of fleece 12.85 lbs. 10.4 lbs 

Average age of fleece 332 days 291 days 

Average value of fleece $1.79 $1.56 

Average yearly weight of fleece 14.13 lbs. 13.03 lbs 

A verage yearly value of fleece $1.96 $1.95 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition.. 13% cts. 15 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 40 per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 23 cts. 

LEICESTEKS. 

Average age of lambs 347 days 268 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) .. .161 lbs. (Jan. 1) 138.4 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .62 lbs. .50 lbs 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 6.53 lbs. 8.48 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.60 cts. 2.65 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 cts. $5.25 cts 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 54.9 53.57 

Average weigbt of fleece 12.65 lbs. 9.8 lbs 

Average age of fleece . . ^ 334 days 268 days 

Averasre value of fleece $1.66 $1.46 

Average yearly weight of fleece 13.82 lbs. 13.32 lbs 

Average yeaily value of fleece $1.81 $1.98 

Value of wool per pound m natural condition. . 13 cts. 15 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 43i.^ per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 23 cts. 

COTSWOLDS. 

Average age of lambs 362 days 277 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn). . 167 lbs. (.Jan. 1) 133 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment.. . .52 lb. .44 lb 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.49 lbs. 9.34 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.93 cts. 2.93 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 cts. $5.25 cts 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 57.8 51.87 

Average weight of fleece 11.55 lbs. 8.9 lbs 

Average age of fleece 348 days 277 days 

Average value of fleece $1-76 ^^"^lu 

Average yearly weight of fleece 12.11 lbs. 11.71 lbs 

Average yearly value of fleece $1.85 $1.71 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition.. M^ cts. 15 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 38^2 per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts. 



184 , THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

D0RSET8. 

1st Expt. 2d Expt 

Average age of lambs 367 days 277 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) . . .138 lbs. (Jan. 1) 128.3 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment... .48 lb. .43 lb 

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.85 lbs. 9.89 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 3.05 cts. 3.04 cts 

Selling price on Chicago market $3.75 $5.50 

Average per cent dressed mutton 52.6 54.11 

Average weight of tleece 6.83 lbs. 5.97 lbs 

Average age of fleece 355 days 277 days 

Average value of fleece $0.77 $0.83 

Average yearly weight of fleece 7.2 lbs. 7.84 lbs 

Average yearly value of fleece $0.79 $1.09 

Value of vvool per pound in natural condition. . lOi!^ cts. 14 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring 55 per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts. 

RAMBOUILLETS. 

Average age of lambs 362 days 255 days 

Average weight (March 31, shorn) ... 99 lbs. (Jan. 1) 113.3 lbs 

Average gain per day during the experiment.. . .29 lb. .37 lb 

Average drv matter per pound of gain 9.35 lbs. 10.29 lbs 

Average cost of feed per pound gain 3.78 cts. 2.91 cts 

Selling price on Chicago marlcet $4.25 $5.00 

Average per cent of dressed mutton 51.8 49.57 

Average weight of fleece 9.9 lbs. 6.60 lbs 

Average age of fleece 359 days . 255 days 

Average value of fleece $1.00 $0.73 

Average yearly \veight of fleece 10.07 lbs. 9.42 lbs 

Average yearly value ol fleece $1.02 $1.04 

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. . 9% cts. 11 cts 

Average shrinkage in scouring •. — GlYz per cent 

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 30 cts. 

These figures deserve careful study, as an example of the 

results of good feeding, and the profit of it when done under 

the best methods-. The feeds given to these lambs were as 

follows. For the first fifteen days the ration was made 

up of: 

50 lbs. bran Cost, 40 cents per 100 lbs. 

100 lbs. oats " 40 " 

100 lbs. shelled corn " 28.5" 

After this time the following ration was fed: 

25 lbs. of oil meal Cost, 90 cents per 100 lbs, 

50 lbs. of bran " 40 " 

200 lbs. of oats " 40 " 

200 lbs. of shelled corn " 20 " 

Towards the close of the feeding period, ten pounds more 
of oil meal was added to the ration, and continued to the 
end. Each lamb was fed as much as it would eat, and. some 
roots and hay in addition. The hay cost 28 cents per 100 
lbs. and the roots 5 cents. 

The whole number of lambs, 109 in the first experiment 
and 91 in the second, not including the ewes, made a total 
gain of 8,246 pounds from 69,134 pounds (dry matter) ot 
reed— a rate of one pound of gain for 8.38 pounds of dry 



186 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



matter in tbe feed cousumed and an average of .448 pounds 
per head daily for tlie entire lot. The total gain of 8,24G 
pounds was made at a cost of $245.69 for feed consumed, 
or an average cost of 2.97 cents per pound for the mutton 
produced in both experiments. This calculation makes no 
allowance for the value of the tleece, except as it entered 
into the gain, nor does it take into account the value of the 
manure or expense of labor in feeding. 

The marketing of these lambs is a matter of interest as it 
goes to show Avhat sort of figure the most profitable kind of 
sheep should possess, and gives a very good idea of what 
should be the aim of the breeder in the improvement of his 
flock, and the kind of rams— the form of them especially— 




DRESSED CARCASS OF LAMB. 



to be chosen for this purpose. The above drawing shows 
the carcass of one of these lambs denuded only of the head. 
The next table below gives the market values of each of 
these parts of the carcass to the butcher. 

BLOCK TEST. 

80UTHD0WNS. 

Weight. Per cent. 



Two pair legs 40 

Two ri^s 34 

Two loins 25 

Two chucks 35 



29.85 
25.37 
18.66 
26.12 

100. 



Total of two lambs. . .134 

SHROPSHIRES. 

Two pair legs 32 29.56 



Two ribs 26 

Two loins 21 

Two chucks 30 

Total of two lambs. . . 109 

OXFOKDS 

Two pair legs 51 

Two ribs 37 

Two loins 30 

Two chucks 42 



23.85 
19.26 
27.33 



Price. 
10 



Amount. 

$ 4 00 

3 06 

2 25 

70 

10 01 



2 34 

1 89 
60 



100. 




8 03 


31.87 
23.12 
18.75 
26.26 


9 

8 
8 

2 


4 59 
2 96 

2 40 

84 



Total of two lambs. 



100. 



10 79 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 18? 



8UFF0LK8. 

Weight. Percent. Price. Amount. 

Twopairlegs 47 ^.19 9 $4 23 

Two ribs 37 22.98 8 2 96 

Two loins 33 20..5U 8 2 64 

Two chucks 44 27.33 2 88 

Total of two lambs. . . 161 100. lo 71 

LINCOLNS. 

Twopairlegs 45 30.61 9 4 05 

Two ribs 35 23.81 8 2 80 

Two chucks 39 26..54 2 78 

Two loins 28 19.04 8 2 24 

Total of two lambs .147 100. 9 87 

LEICESTEKS. 

Two pair legs 48 29.09 9 4 32 

Two ribs 38 23.03 8 3 04 

Two loins 35 21.21 8 2 80 

Two chucks 44 26.67 2 88 

Total of two lambs. . .165 100. 11 04 

COTSWOLDS. 

Twopairlegs 48 30.19 9 4 32 

Two ribs 38 23.90 8 3 04 

Two loins 30 18.87 8 2 40 

Two chucks 43 27.04 2 86 

Total of two lambs. . .159 100. 10 62 

DORSETS. 

Two pair legs 41 30. 15 8 3 28 

Two ribs 33 24.26 714 2 47 

Two loins 25 18.38 7^4 188 

Two chucks 37 27.21 2 74 

Total of two lambs. . . 136 100. 8 37 

MERINOS. 

Twopairlegs 30 29.41 9 2 70 

Two ribs 22 21.57 8 176 

Two loins 22 21.57 8 176 

Two chucks 28 27.45 2 56 

Total of two lambs. . . 102 100. 6 78 

The form and figure of any animal to be fed for profit 
have alwaj^s been a matter of primary- importance to the 
feeder. We are always to think of the ancient wise man's 

remark that the feeiling of animals is the most important 
part of agriculture. It is so in two ways. First the profit 
to be made from the feeding, and second, the manure left 

by which the exhaustion of the soil, in producing the crops 

by which the animals are fed, is repaired. And so it is 

that the feeder of sheep mu?t study the form of the 



18S THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

most profitable animals in the way of feeding for profit. 
A careful study of tlie figures above given will help very much 
in the choice of the stock the feeder thinks of expending his 
fodder and grain upon. It is equally a matter for study by 
the breeder, who works for the feeder, and of course must 
supply him with such animals as will have the most profit 
in them for him. The waste parts of an animal of course 
go for nothing, but yet they consume as much food, pound 
for pound of live weight, as the most valuable, and so it is 
that the carcass which has the moiSt weight of the most 
valuable parts to the consumer, will be the most profitable 
to feed. In the sheep, we want the broad back with the 
full loins, the full ribs and deep shoulders; but the short 
neck and legs, which only give weight of the least useful 
and valuable parts of a carcass. So too we wane the least 
possible offal inside. 

Thiis the figure of the carcass of the lamb given before 
will furnish excellent hints to the breeder for the production 
of the right kind of a carcass needed by the feeders, and 
these Avill learn from it how to choo'se those animals of 
which they may make the most profit by feeding for valua- 
ble meat, and not for mere bone and undesirable flesh. . So, 
too, the table following, in which is given the several 
proportions of the meat and the offal of the carcass of each 
of the breeds named, will furnish very profitable material 
from the point of view mentioned, viz., the profit of the 
feeder, and through him, that of the breeder, w^ho must for 
his own advantage consult the interests of his clients— the 
purchasers. This separatiion of interests is unavoidable; 
for there are two distinct purposes in pursuits; the one pro- 
viding for the other; and being dependent upon him, and the 
other loolving to the breeder for the material which he needs 
to make his own products more valuable. We think this separa- 
tion in one sense, and union in another, of the two interests, 
are best for both, giving a better opportunity for two heads 
to work together, each devoting his special talents and op- 
portunities to the single end in view. 

The butcher's block is the final test of all and is the 
measure of value of the product of the skill of the breeder 
and the feeder as well. The following figures afford mate- 
rial for painstaking and intelligent study: 



i 

en 




2 


h 


a 

3 

a 

D 


Caul fat 

lied tallow 

Paunches empty 
Paunches waste. 
Paunches fat.... 
Intestines empty 
Intestines waste. 
Intestines fat ... 

Livers 

Hea rf .? 


Mutton 

Pelts 

Blood 

Heads 

Horns 

Tongues 

Feet 






1 


00 — S 


mb'cnwaicninbicnai en- cjicx 


J 


10 Southdown 


8 


?gb^ 






Lambs. 


2 




cnbibiaiinbibjb'b'bi • cji en 


^ 


10 Shropshire i 
Limbs. 


8 


kkk 


^ >-' Oi — CHS CC • ti *. OO QC 




CO 

8 




en en in in in in ■ in 


^^ 


10 Oxford Lambs. 


S? = 8 






1 




cncioSp{§*-5ol&t;>.mooin: "Si^8 
in in in in in • 


^ 


10 Suffolk Lambs. 


8 


jgi^is 


1-"— ««'-' ^eo oj :jc*-ocS 


eg 
o 


i 


^.jssS 


in«j»in inin -ininin 


r 


10 Lincoln Lambs. 


8 


^s:g 


— H-w— CnjO CO it4 4^C«S 


^ 
^ 


1 




cntcwI^Jicopwooi^oom- Sjjni^^ 
It in in bi in in • in 


^ 

r 


lOCotswold 

Lambs. 


8 


i§bis 


-^ CO— o:e» &5 '^s^cS 






Oi f^ 5^ 5^ oc w u! ^ 00 — <f .f^ : ic CO oc en 
in in in in in inen-inin 


< 


9 Leicester Lan.bs. 


8 


i^i^b 


'"- — CO— *.j5 CO "ie.rf-?Cic 




i 




enen^nen vi v^ -en en 


^ 


10 Crossbred 

Lambs. 


^kia 




^ 1 


2 


en 


inenininen in bi.'b'in i 


^ 


10 Range Lambs. 


8 

1 — 


kkk 


hkkiskkski^kkk^ 'iis^. 


<g 
o 


s 


uibi 


4^w?3S-co-St«"eojc: SwoS ^ 
in in in in- if*,' 


5 Shropshire 

Yearlings. 


s 


j; 


,N 


?s 




^ 

o 



190 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

FEEDING LAMBS AT THE WISCONSIN EXPERIMENT STATION. 

By the courtesy of the Director of the Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station, Prof. W. A. Henry, we have the opportunity 
of studying the interesting question, whether or not it is 
profitable to feed lambs as soon after birth, and while 
running with the ewes, as may be possible, with a suitable 
grain ration. From the experience of the author in this line, 
he has beeD well able to decide this matter for himself in 
the affirmative, and very positively so. And it has been his 
practice to begin feeding the lambs as soon as they could be 
induced to take the least moi'sel of suitable grain fooJ 
from the hand. And right at this point it is very desirable 
to affirm very positively, that the gentle and confidiug dispo- 
sition of the lambs, and their gentleness and confidence in 
the feeder, are to be cultivated and encouraged, if the best 
results from any kind of feeding that may be adopted are 
to be desired. In fact, the gentle shepherd who carried the 
lambs in his bO'Som, is to be the pattern, rather than the 
one who roughly treats them, and who . is feared and 
avoided by them. In fact we feel decidedly free 
to say that the gentle shepherd only will be able to 
make the best profit from the feeding of lambs or sheep 
of any age. So that to begin feeding Avith the young lambs, 
when they will eat a little bran or meat from the shepherd's 
hand, and troop after him in the liveliest fashion for the 
sweet morsel, is one of the first requisites to the profitable 
feeding during the period of nursing on their dams. 

The whole story of the feeding is too long for our space, 
but it will suffice to give the results of each of three care- 
fully^ conducted experiments. There Avere three periods dur- 
ing W'hich these trials were made. The first from the first 
ability to eat the food after birth; the second after weaning; 
and the third after the lambs were finally fed for fattening 
for market. 

The result of the first test was that thirty lambs were 
fed 1,353 lbs. of grain food, consisting of corn meal, bran, 
oil meal (each of these latter two about one-half in amount 
of the corn meal), and a small quantity of oats too small 
to notice in any way. The result was that one pound of live 
weight was made for a very small trifle over one pound of 
food eaten, or from 1,353 lbs. of food 1,226 lbs. of live weight 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 191 

was made. After baviug been weaned this lot of lambs 
made from 2,27G lbs. of grain food OGT lbs. of live weight, or 
one pomid from three pounds of grain eaten, counting good 
blue grass pasture in. During the tinal feeding of these 
lambs for market, an average of 4 lbs. of grain, 2.75 lbs. of 
hay and one pound of roots w^ere required to make one 
pound of live weight. Of course it is to be considered that 
through the first period the lambs were getting the ewes 
milk which accounts for the small amount of grain food 
needed for each pound of live weight, but it was found that 
the effect of this early growth was to considerably increase 
the product of growth in the later periods, In proportion to 
the grain food comsumed. There was this advantage as 
well, w^hich was, that being used to the grain ration the in- 
crease of this during the fattening period was not accom- 
panied by any of those drawbacks which commonly hap- 
pen when lambs unused to eating grain, are put on grain 
feeding. The lambs continued growth, without any draw^- 
back, thus repaid in this way to some extent for the early 
feeding of the grain. This experiment continued for nine 
months. At the end of it, it was found that the lambs fed 
from the first on the grain ration w^ere fit for sale, and had 
made the same weight, about seven weeks before others 
not so fed were fit for market. Thus the feeding for these 
weeks was really saved by the early feeding. 

In estimating the results at the final disposal of these 
lambs, it was found that those that were fed a grain ration 
from birth not only made seventeen pounds per head for the 
same age, more than the others, but that they also dressed 
a slightly higher per cent in weight. 

As to the fleeces of these lambs, the results showed that 
the lot fed from birth yielded an average of one pound more 
wool per fleece than the other lambs, but this advantage 
did not obtain after the wool was thoroughly washed, so as 
to completely remove all yolk and grease, on account of the 
greater shrinkage in the washing. This of course tends to 
the advantage of the seller of the wcol in the grease. The 
final test of the butchei*'s block shoM^ed that the early fed 
lambs were worth about one cent a pound more thnn the 
others, and on selling the three lots the first brought $5.69 
per 100 lbs., the second and third lots, $4.74 per hundred. 



192 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

The most profit, however, was made from these lambs 

by selling at weauiug, when they made a profit of 68 

cents per head over that made from those which did not 

receive any grain. There is also a profit made by this 

early feeding when tha lambs are sold all together in the 

Fall, as shown by these figures: 

Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 3. 

A'alue per head ^.76 $3.78 $3.14 

Cost per head 1.12 .42 

Protit per head 3.fr4 3.36 2.14 

Thus the lambs having grain food from birth made a 
profit over those fed only from weaning of 28 cents, and 
over those fed only while fattening of 52 cents per head; 
while those fed from weaning made a profit of 23 cents 
over those fed grain only after weaning and when fed for 
fattening. It was not fomid that the previous condition of the 
lambs fed from birth, had any result good or bad on the 
final fattening of themselves, over the others, except so far 
as above suggested that they took to the grain food, as in- 
creased for the fattening, without any delay or waste of 
time. 

VALUE OF DIFFERENT GRAINS FOR FATTENING. 

Another experiment made to test the difference in the 
value of farm grown grains for fattening lambs, is recorded 
in the same report. The intention of these experiments was 
to show if any difference in cost might exist in the use 
of the grain foods tested, M'hich were corn, corn and oats, 
corn and peas, and corn, peas and oats. It is a common 
belief that a mixed ration may be fed more profitably than 
any single one of the grains. This is not proved, however, 
by these results. 

THE CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN 

From these exi>erim)ents may be summed up as follows: 
First— The highest rate of gain for any period was made 

when the lambs were fed grain before weaning. 

Second— TTie rate of gain in the second period— that is 

after weaning — w^as the lowest of all three periods in the 

trial, though the cost of the gain was less than in the third 

or fattening period. 

Third— The unlimited supply of grain after weaning 

caused the lambs to consume less pasture, A half pound of 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 193 

grain i>er day per head is the largest allowance consistent 
with profit at this period. 

Fourth— The feeding of oats, bran, or oil meal (linseed 
is doubtless referred to,t mixed with com m'eal, as used in 
these tests, before and after weaning, did not exert any 
influence upon the rate or cost of gain made during the three 
months of Winter fattening when the lambs were feeding 
for the early Spring market (except as we might add, in 
regard to the earlier maturity mentioned). 

Fifth— The continuous grain feeding from birth until 
the lambs were ten months old, did not produce any notable 
difference in the carcasses in regard to the proportions of 
fat and lean, or the distribution of the fat. 

Sixth— The continuous grain feeding produced some- 
what better fleshed. carcasses, as was shown by the fact 
that they made somewhat higher per cents of dressed weight 
as compared with the lambs which reeeived no grain before 
the period of feeding for fattening. 

Seventh— The continuously grain fed lambs from birth, 
until ten months old, sheared a heavier fleece than those not 
receiving any grain until fed for final fattening. 

Eighth— This increased weight of fleece, however, was 
due more to the large proportion of yolk and oil. than in the 
fleeces of those lambs not fed grain, until the third or fat- 
tening period. 

Ninth — The continuous grain feeding materially in- 
fluenced the early maturity of the lambs to the extent of 
seven weeks in three of the trials and four weeks in the 
other two trials. 

Tenth— The results show that it pays to feed grain to 
lambs before weaning, when they are intended for sale at, 
or soon after, weaning. 

Eleventh- It pays to feed lambs intended to be sold when 
seven months old in November, with grain both before and 
after weaning. 

Twelfth— When lambs are to be sold at the age of ten 
months, after two or three months fattening, during the 
Winter, grain feeding, before feeding for fattening, does not 
seem to have any sensible effect on the profit made (except 
so far as maturity is hastened). 

Thirteenth— Lambs fed continuously from birth with 



194 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

grain, are fit for sale at any time; so that advantage may 
be talven of any favorable condition of the market that 
might occur. 

Fourteenth— The result of five years experimenting in 
this line, shows that the best time to marliet lambs is pre- 
vious to, or at weaning time, and to fit them in the best 
manner for this disposal as to weight and condition, they 
should be fed grain from the earliest possible period. 

VALUE OF FARM GRAINS FOR FATTENING LAMBS. 

An experiment as to the value of farm grown grain 
crops for fattening lambs was conducted by Mr. J. A. Craig, 
the Professor of Animal Husbandry at the Station, with the 
following results. A hundred lambs were purchased from the 
northAvest part of Wisconsin. They were a ragged and poor 
lot then— lousy, ticky and ornamented with burrs. Thirty-two 
were not docked. These were docked by tying a string around 
the tail just above the .ioint to be severed, and the tail was 
cut at the selected joint. As soon as the wound had dried, 
the string was removed, and no tro'Ujble occurred. Tlie lambs 
were dipped to rid them of ticks and lice. It certainly turned 
out that this treatment was conducive to the profit made in 
the feeding, otherwise the result would have been differeDt. 
The first trial was four lots; No 1 fed with corn; No. 2 
with corn and oats; No. 3 with corn and peas; and No. 4 
with corn, oats, and peas. The results were as follows: 
Time Dec. 26 to Feb. 20: 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 

Weight before trial 86.3 89.1 85.6 86.2 lbs. 

W^eight after trial 107.2 110.3 110.8 110.3 " 

Gain in 8 weeks 20.9 21.4 25.2 24.1 " 

Cost of food per head... $0.68 $0.81 $0.84 $0.86 

Cost of 100 lbs. gain 3.26 3.81 3.35 3.57 

SECOND TRIAL — 25 LAMBS IK EACH LOT. 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 

Average weight 75.7 75.6 75.5 75.3 lbs. 

W^eight at end of trial. .. 90.9 89.7 93.7 90.5 " 

Gain in 8 weeks, average 15.2 14.1 18.2 15.2 " 

Gain per head 1.9 1.76 2.27 1.9 " 

Cost of food per head. . .$0.66 $0.72 $0.83 $0.80 

Cost of 100 lbs. gain 4.37 5.15 4.58 5.35 ■ 

AVERAGE OF TWO TRIALS, 1895-1896. 

No. t. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 
Average gain per week.. 2.02 1.82 2.41 2.08 lbs. 

Cost of 100 lbs. gain $4.12 $4.89 $4.31 $4.86 

The figures show the results very plainly, and as the 
profit from the feeding is the object for w^hich lambs are 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 195 

fed, the results need no further remark than that the con- 
dition of the lambs is an important element to be consid- 
ered. 

INFLUENCE OP BREEDING ON THE FEEDING. 

From what has been said on the "subject of breeding, 
in a previous chapter, it will be easily gathered, that as 
the feeding is one of the most important elements of im- 
provement of all animals through the perpetuation by breed- 
ing of the advantages gained by sldllful feeding, feeding 
really comes first. The improvement of animals by feeding, 
of course, and necessarily must come first; for if like 
produces like, the breeding can only perpetuate the elements 
already existing. The skillful breeder selects the best speci- 
mens he is able to secure, and by coupling these he obtains 
a progeny like the parents, and having the inherited ability 
to be still further improved by a still further aptitude to 
feed and digest food, and thus not only fix what has been 
gained and make it a permanent inheritance, but perpetuate 
the disposition to feed and turn the food to the best use. 
The talk of the old breeders, as it is of the modern ones, 
was always of the feeding ability of their stock, whether it 
were cattle or sheep. And as we inherit the results of a 
century of good feeding, we must still maint in the condi- 
tion of our stock by the same means as it has been originally 
gained. 

Hence when we discuss the influence of breeding on the 
feeding quality of lambs we are simply gathering the ex- 
pected fruits of the inherited ability of the lambs to hold the 
position which they derived from their parents. And what- 
ever facts are derived from the results of experiments made 
in this line, we may take as a foregone conclusion that 
may be applied to encourage the constant improvement of 
the flocks by higher breeding, for the sake of the profit this 
insures, when we come to feed these improved sheep. 

The experiment here to be described was made by the 
Wisconsin Station as a sort of final test of the influence of 
good breeding on profitable feeding. A lot of the station 
lambs were selected and fed in comparison with a lot of 
common lambs procured from the northern part of the state. 
They were of the common stock, bred promiscuously, and 



196 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

from inferior ewes and rams. The station • lambs were 
Shropshire grades mostly, and having been bred under the 
care of Professor Craig were, we may be sure, excellent 
of their kind. Twenty five of the common lambs were fed 
along with twelve of the station lambs. The following 
table shows the results of the test. 

Northern Lambs. Station Lambs. 

Average weight at the beginning.. 75.5 lbs. U5.9 lbs. 

Average weight at end of trial 93.7 " 144.7 " 

Gain in eight weeks 18.2 " 28.8 " 

Weekly gain 2.27 " 3.60 " 

Food eaten— 

Corn fodder 102.7 " 135. " 

Corn 48.8 " 71. " 

Peas 48.8 " 71. " 

Cost of feed $0.83 $1.17 

Cost of 100 lbs. gain 4.58 4.08 

Each of the station lambs gained 1.3 lbs. more than the 
other lambs per week, and while they consumed more food, 
the excess of food is not as large in proportion as the gain 
made. This ability to eat and profitably dispose of good 
food, is one of the most prominent features of better breed- 
ing, indeed it is the very fundamental principle involved in 
breeding, and thus, it goes without saj'ing, that the better 
bred the stock is the better feeding it demands, and in return 
for this just compliance with the demands of the improved 
sheep, these make a generous return with sufficient profit to 
compensate the feeder for his just compliance with the de- 
mands of his flock. This is never to be forgotten by those 
concerned, who are anxious to get all the profit that may be 
from their improved stock. 

An instance that may be pertinent, and that tells the 
story in an emphatic manner, may be given. There was a 
noted breeder of Jersey cows, who sold a high bred calf to a 
farmer at a distance. This man was one of those who, very 
mistakenly, think high breeding will give the ability to an 
animal to live on less food than a common scrub, as it is 
called; and that the high price paid for an animal of this 
kind will be returned in the cheaper feeding of it. The calf 
under this kind of management soon became an object for the 
pity of any humane person, and of reproach to its owner. 
The owner became exceedingly wroth against the breeder 
of the calf, and as an example had the poor animal put on 
exhibition at a popular state fair, and on his card mentioned 
the name of the breeder of whom the calf had been bought. 



SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDINC. 19? 

This .seeoiKl foolish act of the man of course told severely 
against him in the minds of well-informed visitors, but it 
procured him sympathy from those who were not better in- 
formed than himself. The calf was purchased for a small 
price, and under the right treatment, became a noted cow 
whose progeny sold for the highest prices current for Jersey 
stock. 

Of course the same applies to sheep as to other animals, 
and purchasers of high bred breeding stock, whether ewes 
or rams, should take this essential fact into consideration, 
and make it a rule of management to treat the animals 
with every possible liberality, of course, in a judicious way, 
and keep in mind this fundamental principle, that breeding, 
being a natural result of the precise condition of the animals 
bred, the progeny must have the same liberal treatment, 
and we may be sure it will be as liberally returned with in- 
terest, as it is liberally afforded. 

The result of the foregoing experiment in feeding the 
lambs may be given as follows. 

Difference of profit between the two lots: 

25 Northern Lambs. 12 Station Lambs. 

Cost, at 3 cents a pound 156.68 $41.73 

Final value 93.70 69.50 

Cost of food 20.75 • 14.14 

Profit per head 0.65 1.13 

CONDITION, AND ITS EFFECT ON VALUE. 

The professional seller of live stock has certain elements 
of value to guide him in the pursuit of his business. One 
of these, if not the principal one, is what is termed condition, 
or .sometimes quality. It is this special characteristic of tlie 
animal which gives final' value to the meat to the con- 
sumer, who of course chooses the meat which has the least 
wa.ste, and is of the most promising appearance for econom- 
ical domestic use. This quality necessarily has its special 
value, and where sheep or lambs are offered for sale, as in- 
deed cattle as well, the buyer will take pains to ascertain 
the condition of the animals he is proposing to buy. Neces- 
sarily the producer must be well informed of the nature 
of this condition, so that he may send only those best fitted 
for market, if he thinks of getting the top price. There are 
numerous instances in which the commiission man will toll 
his client, you should have kept these lambs or wethers a 



198 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

montli or two more, to get them into better coudition. This 
suggestion means to the owner a loss of money on his coii- 
sigument, perhaps a dollar a hundred pounds, which might 
have been saved by two or three weeks longer feeding, by 
which not only the value would have been increased in pro- 
portion to the condition, but as to the increased weight as 
well. It is to get this condition that many farmers buy 
stock in the markets that are as yet only feeders, and not 
finished for the butcher, and get such animals at such a less 
price, that it pays the purchasers to take them home and 
feed them, adding to the weight by which a good profit 
is made, and getting as a bonus the enhanced value due to 
the improved condition. 

The first test of condition is smoothness of the carcass. 
The bones are well covered, and the body is round and well 
filled up. Some animals are better shaped for this than 
others, and these the professional feeder calls "good feed- 
ers." That is, their bones are not so prominent, the baclc- 
bone does not form a ridge along the back, the sides are 
deep, the ribs are well arched, the neclv is sliort, the head 
fine, and small, and the legs well spread apart. You cannot 
build a broad house on a narrow foundation, and an animal 
must have the right shape before it may be profitably put 
into really good condition. The figure will in no part be 
regular or thin, but round and full, with soft flesli which 
covers the bones, and to which the skin is loosely attached. 
The outside is a key to the condition of the inside, and we 
are to judge by the outer form and feeling, what the actual 
condition will be when the carcass is exposed to view in the 
butcher's stall. It is a good plan for those concerned in 
feeding sheep for market, to visit a great city and stroll 
through the markets there, and talk with tlie mni'ket men. 
Many valuable hints may thus be procured which will be 
useful in the rearing of market animals. 

Generally it is the larger animals which are defective 
in condition. Size is of no account unless the condition is 
satisfactory. A lamb may match the 'size most desired, but 
it is not w^eight alone which gives value. Another ma,y be 
ten or tw^enty pounds over the average weight desired, and 
yet may bring a better price for the reason that its condition 
is better than that of a smaller animal. It is to be thouglit 



200 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

of that the end of all is the meat, and the quality of it. 
This is the only useful part to the consumer. The more meal 
there is in a twenty pound quarter, and the less bone, the 
better the animal is; for whatever less of actual meat there 
may be, the more there is in proportion of bone and worth- 
less stuff. And to secure this desired condition to€ it is better 
to feed a longer time, than to rush the feeding through by too 
liberal rations. The fat made now is not wanted in the 
meat, and not laid all on it on the outside of the carcass. 
The actual appearance of the carcasses, as shown by the 
photograph on the previous page, of the first and third lots 
of lambs, the first being fed grain from birth, and the 
third only three months before marketing, goes to show the 
inside appearance of what good condition is, and how it se- 
cures that economy in the final use of the meat, w^hich justi- 
fies the butcher in giving a higher price for the best car- 
casses, as well as in exacting a higher price from the house- 
keeper who is quite willing to pay it as a simple matter 
of domestic economy. The feeder will work with more light 
and better success, who understands fully what this term, 
condition, signifies. 

In the previous illustration we may readily select the 
best conditioned lamb by the rounder back; the more even 
distribution of the fat with the lean, and the larger volume 
of the lean as it is surrounded by the loin fat. This is the 
result of the smooth, broader back taken as one of the 
tests of condition of the sheep. We may readily perceive 
that this is one of the results of breeding as well as of feed- 
ing, and is as much due to the rams used as to the good 
feeding of the ewes while carrying their lambs, and the 
skillful feeding of the lambs. 



CHAPTER V. 

BARNS AND STABLES. 

The best arrangement ci" buildings lor a sheep farm is a 
matter of economy, for whatever is most convenient for use 
saves time and avoids waste of feed. A great waste of fod- 
der may occur unless the feed racks are made on the best 
plan to prevent it, and with a mere trough for the grain the 
strongest sheep will push its Avay along, monopolizing the 
most of it, and driving the rest of the flock before it deprive 
them of a due share. This is a waste, and an injury to the 
greedier feeder, while the weaklings of the flock are starved. 
The structure of the whole buildmg too is to be well studied 
out, so thai it may be arranged on the most useful system. 

A few remarks on the general theory of sheep shelters 
may be useful at the outset. There is no necessity for 
heavy, costly barns or stables. Light structures with ample 
floor space are the best in every way. And we are not 
studying style at present, but simply the ways in which the 
shepherd mnj use the money to the best advantage, and 
with the utmost economy of time and labor in the general 
care and attention given to the flock. 

The most space is contained in a square building, at 
least as compared with longer and narrower ones. There is 
most space for the length of outer wall in a round building; 
and the octagon and hexagon, with their eight or six sides, 
come next to the full square. The octagonal style of build- 
ing is coming into favor for farm structures, and many are 
adopting the round form for all kinds of storage barns 
and the accommodation of the live stock. The accompany- 
ing sketch is of an octagonal building 29 feet in diameter, 
of Avhich the floor space gives 696 square feet. A square build- 
ing with the wall 96 feet in length will give only 576 square 
feet of space, and will be twenty-four feet only in diameter. 
A round barn of the same length of wall will give 732 feet 




20^ THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

of floor. It is easier, however, to bnild an octagonal barn 
tlian a roimid one, for tlie timbers are much more easily 
put together, and the structure is much stronger; each corner 
binding the whole in an equally solid manner; in truth, 
more, so, than in the round one or the square. The i3lau 
here given is one of 96 feet of wall, that is, twelve feet on 

each side, by which there is 
room for nine places for feed- 
ing on each side, thus giving 
accommodation for a large 
flock if several feeding racks 
are scattered about between 
the middle rack and the outer 
ones. It is well adapted 
to lamb rearing, on account 
of the number of small pens 
which may be made large 
enough for a ewe and its lamb 

OCTAGONAL BARN, «^ ^ °^* *^^^ °^' ^^''^^ ^'^"^^'' *^^ 

middle space bemg used for 
feeding the lambs by turning them out when the ewes are 
brought in to suckle them. A barn built on this plan may 
have tw^o floors, by which the capacity is doubled at a very 
small increased cost, the main floor being three feet below 
the surface and the upper one four feet above, and being 
reached by a plank walk at each door. It is to be noted that 
the capacity of such a barn as this is increased four times 
by doubling the diameter, and one-half increase in this, that 
is, from twenty-nine or thirty feet to forty-five, will make it 
two and a half times as capacious. 

The method of building such a barn is much cheaper 
than that of the square or oblong form. The floor should 
be of cement concrete, and it is best to have the foundation 
for the sills of the same material, but it need not be over 
six inches thick, merely to raise the timbers from the ground. 
The sills may not be over four inches thick, and eight wide 
is sufficient. The corners are merely halved together and 
bolted with a one-inch iron bolt. The scantling for the 
walls for the two floors should be six by two inches, and a 
row of these is placed in the middle of the building and 
rest on posts six inches square. There is a central shoot 



BARNS AND STABLES. 



203 



In the middle made of two inch plank for taking down the 
fodder, and the inner row of beams rest on this; the beams 
being for the size of building mentioned, eight inches wide 
and two thick. It is well to support these beams in a sutii- 
cient number of places by braces at each alternate post. 

The plates are eight by two or three inches, halved to- 
gether as the floor sills are, and secured by bolts held by 
screw ends and nuts. The upper part has the usual purliiK? 
plates over the rows of posts below, and these are well boliel 
together. The rafters are in two parts, the lower set hav- 
ing a high slope so as to afford as much storage space as 
possible above. There is a hay shoot in the center, down 
which the fodder is sent from the hay floor on the top, 
and shoots are made in convenient places to send down the 
grain, which is distributed through the feed troughs below 
by means of spouts made of common bagging cloth, placed 
at convenient distances, by which the grain from the bins 
above is shot down into the feed troughs on either floor, 
being guided by an assistamt below W'ho leads the spout 
from place to place as he may desire. 

This kind of barn has been found very convenient and 
cheap to build, two men having fully completed one of the 
size mentioned in a week, the roof being quickly and well 
made by the use of the 
metallic roofing plates, simply 
nailed to the rafters without 
any sheeting under it, unless 
this is desired. But as the 
roof is quite steep it may be 
made of the plain weather 
boarding, lapped two inches 
and painted. The top should 
be covered for two feet or so 
by a cap of s-heet zinc or gal- 
vanized iron. The cut shows 
the arrangement of the hay 
spouts and the feed racks. 

Figure 2 is that of a cheap frame building of light 
materials put together in the strongest manner by means 
of the bracing shown. It has a clear floor above, and it may 
be made of three stories, two floors being occupied by sheep, 





FEED RACKS AND SPOUTS. 



204 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



and the top floor by fodder. It will make a most desirable 
house for rearing lambs, as there may be six rows of pens 
on the main floor, double planked, if two floors are used, 
in the upper part, to keep the lower one dry. Or the upper 
floor may be occupied by the lambs and the lower one by the 
ewes. The braces bolted to the other parts of the frame 
give great stiffness as well as a clear space at very little 
cost of labor in the building. A barn on this plan, 180 feet 




Fig. 2.— CBEAPLY BUILT SHEEP BARN. 

by 40 has been found to cost less than half that of a square 
barn with the same floor room, which is 7,200 square feet, a 
little less than one-sixth of an- acre, or a third if two floors 
are used. It will accommodate 700 sheep, giving one and a 
half feet of rack length to each sheep, which is ample; or if 
for lambs there may be room made for 400 ewes, as well as 
the same number of lambs, which will be kept in pens in the 
middle space. 

It has been contended by some sheep breeders that en- 
closed stables are not desirable, and that mere open sheds 
are sutRcient. This is opposed to scientific rules, which go 
to prove most emphatically, that exposure of any animal to 
cold causes a waste of food which is required to maintain 
the animal heat indispensable for health and comfort, both 
of which terms are equivalent: for discomfort, as we know- 
in our own experience, is merely a condition whiich leads to 
disease, and a diseased sheep will first show its condition 
by the dropping of the wool or a serious loss of flesh. So 
that the belief of every well informed shepherd is that sheep 
need good comfortable shelter, as well as other animals do. 



BARNS AND STABLES. 205 

There is no necessity for expensive buildings, all that is re- 
quired is shelter from the sno^^• and rains of the Winter. 
This is so important that the Scotch, and some of the Eng- 
lish, shepherds tal^e every precaution to protect the sheep 
by the use of oiled jackets to shed the rain from the sheep's 
back, which is the most vulnerable part of the body, as the 
spinal nerve which runs along this part of the body may be 
easily chilled, and this causes sucih serious disorders of this 
nervous center of the body, as to produce the most fatal 
diseases. It will be useful to refer to the chapter on diseases, 
in vv^hich this most sensitive part of the sheep's anatomy is 
fully described, and the effects of injury to this great 
nervous center are particularly discussed. Besides this pre- 
caution, these shepherds grease the fleece so that it will shed 
the rain and prevent it from penetrating to the skin, and 
thus by the severe chilling effects cause these spinal diseases. 
These precautions are needed when sheep are fed out in the 
fields, gathering for themselves the common root crops on 
which the chief Winter feeding of the flocks consist, and es- 
pecially in a climate where rain is so almost constantly 
drizzling as in England and Scotland. 

There are serious difficulties in the way of our adoptioQ 
of this method of feeding our flocks, and thus we are obliged 
to provide ample protectioji by means of sheds, or •com- 
pletely finished barns or enclosed stables. The mere shel- 
ter is all that is needed, but provided in such a way that the 
necessary conditions for health are secured. 

An excellent shed suitable for sheep may be built for 
the small cost of fifty cents a foot in length, and lerngth is 
more important than width, for a wide building must have 
stiff and heavy timber in the frame, while one of twenty 
feet In width may be made wholly of the lightest framing 
stuff. Indeed there need be no framing about it; the stuff 
is put together with nails only, and with a double row of 
studding in the center, where the feed racks are placed, will 
serve to hold up the fodder stored above. The author has 
built a substantial shed twenty feet wide and a hundred feet 
long for fifty cents a running foot; and with extra fittings 
and everything done in the best manner, the cost has been 
under a dollar a foot for a well furnished lamb house, sepa- 
rate pens and feed arrangements all included. 



306 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Tweutj- feet is quite sutiicient width for any sheep 
house. This permits four feed raelvs, a double one in the 
center, and one at each side, or a row of lamb pens on one 
side if desired. If the ground is dry, and not in a hollow, 
so that the rain flows off from the eaves on each side into 
gutters provided to carry otf the water, no floor will be needed. 
The whole front may be made of sliding doors hung on rol- 
lers, the doors being pushed open in tine weather, and closed 
in storms. The upper half of each door is provided with 
shutters that may be opened when needed or closed for full 
protection. These shutters are hinged so that they may be 
turned down, and bars are placed inside, as a protection for 
the sheep in such localities as where prowling dogs are too 
numerous or Avild animals may attack the flock at night. 

For range flocks shelters may be made very cheaply. 
The author, when keeping a flock in Western Kansas, built 
a range of sheds in this manner. The outer wall was of 
sods laid up in the manner of a sod house, then a common 
method of construction on the open range and distant from 
the railroad, and especially when the capital in hand could 
be much more prolMably employed in buying and feeding 
sheep, than in costly buildings. The main building was a 
shed five hundred feet long, the outer wall made of sods 
cut 'with a sharp steel plow, and chopped with a broad-ax 
into lengths of six feet. The sods were eighteen inches 
wide and four inches thick. They were laid up into a wall 
six feet high. The front of the shed was of posts eight feet 
above the ground level, of cottonwood cut on the banks of 
the river which ran through the range. The plates in front 
and the rafters were of the same kind of timber, and the 
roof was of thatch made of the abundant grass and sedge 
in the wet bottom lands, which supplied very good hay when 
cut in good time. 

Six similar sheds were made from this main one, half 
the length. These were double, having a row of posts in the 
center and one at each side. The roofs were all of thatch 
as the main shed roof was. The outside sheds had the outer 
walls of sods, and the shepherd's house was wholly of sods, 
with a thatched roof. This thatch is made of bunches of 
grass laid first on the eaves, and tied down to split laths 
tied to the rafters, with tarred twine sufficiently strong fot 



BARNS AND STABLES. 



207 



the purpose. As a row of the thatch was laid another was 
laid on it, and fastened down Avith the twine. As each row 
of thatch was laid it was beaten down with a light mallet 
to flatten it. The top of the roof was tied iu a similar way 
by winding the twine in and through the grass so as to 
secure it firmly. The roof so made was perfectly water- 
tight, and after being clipped with shears made a smooth, 
neat appearance. 

The front was made of wire fence seven feet high, 
and the strands three inches apart for four feet up, and 
seven inches for the rest. Sufficient gates, made of split 
stakes, were put iu the front. There were five separate 
yards, each eighty feet wide, and the Winter stock of fodder 
was stacked in these yards to which the sheep had free ac- 




PLAN OF SHEEP SHEDS. 

cess. Corn was fed on the ground, and this without any 
waste; the sheep eating it clean from the ground; and each 
getting its due share better than whem fed in troughs. The 
whole enclosure was about three acres. The sheep fed out 
on the range most of the time, and were brought into the 
shelter only when storms threatened. A barometer, of the 
kind known as aneroid (a perfect portable instrument) was 
daily consulted and at every coinsiderable fall the flocks 
were brought up. This is a good practice to follow oai 
the range, as in every instance the prediction of the barome- 
ter was verified, and many sheep were saved that would 
surely have been lost without these warnings. A plan of 
the sheds is given, the gates are seen to open inwards, a con- 
venient precaution for safety. 



208 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP, 




A few years' experience sllO^Yed that the use of fodder 
racks for feeding under similar circumstances, is not profita- 
ble. The racks cost something, especially where lumber is 
worth a Jiigh price, and generally is not to be obtained. The 
loss of hay, costing something less than a dollar a ton 
stacked in the yards, and the entire absence of waste in feed- 
ing corn on the ground, by exercising a little care in scatter- 

a, Slats 2xlM inches, sloping in, 
nailed to scantlings 2x2 at top. c. 
Sliding boards. 2,2, Grain troughs 8 
inches wide. Bars are nailed across 
the grain rack of every third slat to 
prevent sheep from crowding. 

DOUBLE HAY BACKS AND TROUGHS. 

ing it from a wagon before the sheep have been let out and 
have scattered, render this method of feeding the most 
economical under the circumstances. If a hay and grain 
rack is thought desirable this one is recommended. 

Another form of feed rack and grain trough is shown in 
figure below. When lambs are running in the sheds with the 
ewes it will be safe to close in the ends of the -feed racks, 

and indeed to carefully close 
every space or hole in which 
they can enter, as it will be 
sure to happen that these mis- 
chievous little things will 
crawl in somewhere and get 
fast and only be discovered 
when too late, and they are 
lost. 

SOILING SHEEP. 
On farms where the past- 
urage is not sufficient, and 
green crops for feeding may 
be grown at a small cost) feed- 
ing these in yards in which 
there is convenient shed for 




HAY RACK AND GRAIN BOX. 

Grain box has cross cleats to 
keep feed in place for each sheep. 



shelter at night or in stormy weather in the Winter, will be 
found a cheap and very desirable practice. 

A barn or shed placed in a central part of the space 
to be allotted for this use will be required. A plan of such 



BARNS AND STABLES. 



209 



a shed is here given. It is designed for a flock of sixty or 
seventy, with room for the lambs included. It is made with 
I low roof projecting well over the walls, so as to afford pro- 




SHED FOR SOILING SHEEP, 

tection from sweeping rains or snows. The window^ places 
are open but protected by wire netting as a precaution 
against dogs, w^here this danger may exist. 

The floor plan is shown at figure. The feed racks run 
around three sides and partly in the front, with one in the 
center giving the usual rack space of a foot and a half for 
each of about seventy sheep. 

The upper part of the front 
door slides on rollers, and is 
made of slate so as to give 
ample ventilation along with 
the large open window spaces. 

The lot appropriated for 
the sheep is fenced into con- 
venient plots, into each of 
which the low^er gate opens so 
that the flock may be turned 
out to feed on the remains of 
the crops after the cutting has 
been completed. Indeed it is 
a part of this system that the 
sheep may be fed out of doors, 
in any of the separate plots by 
cutting the crop in an adjoin- floor plan OF SHED. 



1 







210 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



■CH- 



ing lot, and giving it in suitable racks. A large quantity of 
dry fodder may be saved in this way for Winter use, for as 
fast as one plot is fed off, the land is immediately sown or 
planted with another; and it is this succession which makes 
this method of feeding so cheap and profitable. It is used 
in dairies for feeding cows, and under this system one 
square rod of ground feeds a cow one day, thus making one 
acre and one crop feed 160 days. This is equivalent to seven 
sheep. By good management, as by having crops come in 
succession, two and even three may be grown on the same 
land in the Summer. 

The chief crop is sweet 
corn, the earliest of which 
planted in this way, three 
times as thickly as for a grain 
crop, may mature in sixty 
days. This may be followed 
as soon as cut by another 
planting. Indeed, the cutting 
and planting go on simulta- 
neously, for as fast as a strip 
of ground is cleared, the plow 
is put in and this land planted 
or sown at once. 

The most suitable crops for this system of feedi!ng are 
sweet corn, mixed oats and peas. Sorghum (which may be 
cut three times), rape, and one plot of orchard grass, which 
affords constant pasture if well distributed through the 
whole season, from April until the snow flies. Turnips or 
rape may be sown on the last corn, to add to the feeding 
season. Suggestions in this way only need to be given, the 
intelligent reader will suit himself according to his circum- 
stances, only following the general plan of always having 
something growing, and no land idle a single day during the 
growing season. In this way every farmer may find it 
easy, and exceedingly profitable, to feed a flock that may 
bring in five or six dollars a head every year, and at the 
same time add considerably to the products of the land 
by its enrichment through the manure made. This is most 
important for every farmer to consider, 



<fhUX DV MBEBie-XiXO. 



BARNS AND STABLES. 211 

HANDLING SHEEP. 

The iiandling of sheep is a science to be studied. You 
canuot drive tJiem without some method of coutiolling 
them. W here one leads all will follow. There is an old, but 
doubtless true, story told of a flock going to market, and 
thej-e came in the way a small huckster's cart loaded Avith 
truck. There was ample room for the sheep to pass, but 
one sprightly ram took a notion to jump over the cart, which 
he did in the best style; every otlier sheep followed the lead, 
and made a flying leap over the cart, and the bewildered 
driver of it. Sheep have this way of "following my leader" 
just as the boys do in their games, and it must be pre- 
pared for by some reason of controlling them and forcing 
them to go in the way they should. The stock yards afford 
a lesson to the shepherd, for on some of the large ranches 
there are equally easy means of handling sheep in a large 
flock. Mr. .7. E. Wing of Ohio gives us a story of the man- 
agement of sheep at one of the stock yards in Chicago, and 
his pleasantly told tale interests all concerned, shippers of 
flocks for sale, and especially buyers for feeding. 

SEEN AT THE CHICAGO STOCK YARDS. 

The stock yards is an admirable place to study the 
American sfeeep industry. I could spend weeks in the sheep 
sheds with pleasure and profit. Let's look through together. 

Here is a load— some 2,50 head of Montana wethers. 
They are great tail, big-framed, lusty fellows, mostly 
smooth-headed, but a few have horns. They are fat and 
the killers want them. The buyers look them over and bid 
4^/4. That means about $5 each for the lot, and a happy 
rancher somewhere on the slopes of the Rockies. 

Here is a lot in thinner flesh that will go out to the 
country to be fed. They will cost about $3.60, or better, 
and as they are good shearers, v.ill no doubt be money 
makers this year of cheap feed. The evenness of size and 
appearance of these westerners is much in their favor. This 
is mainly the resuft of correct breeding, but proper sorting 
has done a good deal toward it. 

Here we see a bunch of newly arrived sheep being "put 
through the mill." The man with the sharp eye and trained 



313 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



judgment, stands and shifts the gate, shunting the ewes 
and thin sheep into one pen, theprime muttons into another. 
Tliis sorting pen is so useful a thing that 1 thinli best to 
show a sketch of it here. Most sheep farmers need one. 

The lane umst be narrow enough to compel single file, 
as the sheep go in, sixteen inches is about right, and the 
lane should be ten feet long at the least, twenty feet is bet- 
ter, and the gate closed or opened switches the approaching 
sheep into either apartment as desired. 




SORTING PEN. 

This pen of western lambs interests us. They have the 
tell-tale smutty faces indicating the Shrop cross. We would 
like them to feed, so healthy and lively and growthy they 
seem, but Swift's buyer bids above the nickle and we leave 
them to him. 

Here is a small lot of native lambs. They seem nearly 
full-blooded Shrops. Note the shrunken fleece, lack-lustre 
eyes and languid movements. These mean that parasites 
have struck them. Everywhere I go the evidence piles up 
before me itbat the parasite has the eastern sheepman in his 
grip. What are we going to do about it? We will do some- 
thing, depend upon it. 

Here are some native ewes, good ones, nearly pure- 
blooded ghrops. They, too, are infested, as is plain to be 



BARNS AND STABLES. 2lB 

seen. A farmer has bought them to take back to the coun- 
try. I pity him his experience of the next year or two. 

Here is another pen of natives, and what queer sheep 
they are! Long in tlie leg, thin in the fleece, thin in the 
chest, with pendulous bellies, like Indian famine sufferers; 
it is a mystery to us that such sheep should exist in America 
and good rams so cheap. There is a vast difference in the 
quality of the westerns. Some one-half Cotswolds from 
Utah tempt us, but Swift wants them and we let him have 
them. 

Monday morning sees a big "run" of 25,000 head in the 
pens, and for once the feeder has a chance after the killers 
have supplied themselves. We fall in love with some one- 
half and three-quarter blood Shrops from Wyoming and the 
salesman makes a quarter concession to us and soon 600 
Iambs are rolling toAvard Woodland Farm feed yards. We 
have paid a long price, to be sure, but they are only 56 lbs., 
and are all so even, so healthy and so free from "tail" that 
we' view them again and again with delight. We have 
never had such feeders, amd visions of fat 100 pounders next 
March appear to us. First to the dipping vat they must go, 
and the 600 go through it in less than an hour. There is no 
scab on them and w^e feel very sure there will never be 
any now^ and shall not dip again. The charge is but 3c. 
each and we are grateful to Secretary Wilson for having 
made this dipping compulsory and thus feasible. 

Homeward we rumble across Illinois prairies and Indiana 
flelds, burned to a crisp by the long drouth, the yellow corn 
standing in great fields on either hand. Riding much on the 
car roofs we study the farms on either side. Few sheep 
are seen; none that would indicate even an, attempt at 
systematic sheep husbandiT- We think long of the future— 
and w^hat it has in stoi-e for us. Are we to learn how to 
keep sheep in this central country, or are we to continue to 
lease it to the western brothers? Is it a safe business to 
buy feeders in Chicago and compete with killers to rum 
prices up— up? 

A method followed on one of the large Texan Ranches is 
here shown. A and B are two large lots into which the sheep 
are gathered for dipping, marking or sorting. A round, cen- 
tral pen (C) into which the sheep may be driven from either 



214 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



of tlie others, by meaus of the three-fold gate at the end 
of the circular driveM'ay, or alley. The sheep are gathered 
in the lot B, and driven round inside of the curved fence 
to the dipping vat, and the dripping vats at F and G. The 
circular fence is two hundred feet in diameter and will hold 
two thousand sheep. It is easy to handle the sheep in any 
way, by the gates in the alley, which is three and a half feet 
wide. The alley is closed in the places marked, by a sliding 




R R 



: ; 



.fhriii 



iTrrm 



SLIDING GATE. 



A TEXAS CATCH PEN FOR SORTING 
AND DIPPING. 

gate, shown at small figure, and will hold 200 head or more. 
By dropping the sliding gates this lot may be divided into 
four lots, each of which may be handled with ease for any 
purpose desired, marking, dipping, sorting, or examining. 
By using hurdles the part of the circular pen below the 
cuiwed fence may be closed in and the gate at either en- 
trance may be closed at will. As soon as one pen is emptied 
it is filled again from the next one, by lifting the gate by a 
cord running over a pulley, and as fast as ome lot is done 
with, the next comes to hand without trouble or delay. 
The rear pen D is used for drying the sheep after dipping 
them in the vats and passing them through to draining floor 



BARNS AND STABLES. 



215 



F and G. The shearing tloor and the shepherd's house are 
in this pen D, near the dipping vat. 

A MANITOBA SHEEP HOUSE. 

A Manitoba farmer has solved the problem of how to 
dispose of the refuse of his large wheat and oat crop, and 
preserve the fertility of his land with protit. He, as other 
wise farmers have been doing for ages past and are doing 
to-day, keeps sheep to consume the wastes of his grain 
crops; the straw and chaff, and the screenings of the wheat 
cleaned for sale together v\'ith ample crops of oats and peas 
grown together, and harvested when the grain is merely 
formed, and then ensiloed. This feed is well adapted to 
feeding sheep and no other is required either for mainte- 
nance of the flocks or for fattening those drafted out for 
sale. 

He has also solved the problem of the housing of the 
sheep, when this is necessary or even desirable for the wel- 
fare of the flocks. His houses are constructed in the sim- 
plest manner. They are 200 feet long and 50 wide, having 
a feed trough on the rear side, and cross feeding racks by 
which the house is divided into pens 25x20 feet, A passage 
runs the whole length of the house, and is eight feet wide. 
The entrance gates to this passage are made to open out- 
wards, but only half way, so that they form an entrance 
with sloping sides by which the sheep entering cannot choke 
the way or Injure themselves by crowding in the sharp 
entrance. The passage way is provided with gates which 
are hung by cords which go over pulleys on the center posts; 
and weights being attached to the cords so as to partly bal- 
ance the gates, they are lifted with ease by a mere touch 




.n nm run nin n 

f^O o ^» 

Pig. 3.— front OF THE HOUSE. 
For a Grain Farm, Oat and Pea Silage, with grain for feed. 

of the hand, and remain suspended until drawn dowli again. 

By this device each department of the house may be 

closed and each space of flfty by twenty-five feet turned 

into a separate pen. having a door to the outside where a 




216 THE DOMESTIC SHEE?. 

large j-ard is enclosed by hurdles, which may be moved 
with ease, or one of which being loosened forms a rotary 
gate. There is room for a thousand sheep in this house, 
without crowding at the feed racks. Fig. 3 shows the front 

till 1 1 tit 

Fig. 4.— floor PLAN WITH FEED RACK. 

of the house; fig. 4 is the floor plan; and fig. 5 shows the 
section through the house with the framing and the passage 
way, with the feed raclis on each side. 

This passage is wide enough to per- 
mit a wagon or sled to go through with 

a load of fodder, which is distributed 

easily among the feed racks with the ^o -/o- -3.0- 

least amount of labor. Fi«- S.-Sliding Gate. 

This house is built of posts set in the ground. The 
framing is all of rough timber, and the roof and whole en- 
closure consists of the common steel sheet roofing. It is fur- 
nished with tight gates, so that in the heaviest cold storms 
it may be entirely closed in, ample ventilation being pro- 
vided for by tbe long narrow openings in the front of each 
gable, and others at the back. The feed troughs are made 
of the steel sheeting, nailed to common post timber, hewed 
into the proper form. This resource was made necessary 
by the difficulty of getting sawed timber, ajid the hewing 
was cheaper than the sawing with whip saws. 

The fundamental rules for success in housing and hand- 
ling sheep may be repeated here for full consideration; so 
that each one concerned, knowing his own necessities aiiid 
conditions, may apply these suggestions to his own indi- 
vidual case. It was once remarked by one of the most pro- 
found and successful teachers of mathematics as a rule for 
his pupils (of wliom the author was one) that whenever 
there was any doubt, one should immediately revert to the 
principle involved in the cjuestion. Everything in the whole 



BARNS AND STABLES, 217 

conduct of human afiairs has its dilemmas, and times, in 
which this going back to the principles involved is the secret 
of success. So that we may suggest these rules for general 
guidance when one is in doubt of what is best to be doue 
in any circumstances. Then any man, with a little thought, 
may adapt his con<iuct to the conditions by which he is con- 
fronted. 

Rule 1.— Sheep require to be led, rather thaai driven. 
They are to be controlled by such means that they cannot 
help but follow in the way they should go. 

Rule 2.— Although naturally hardy they are the weakest 
of animals when misfortune overtakes them, and their 
natural stupidity, or— as might doubtless be more correctly 
said— their inborn disposition to depend on their masters, 
renders them an easy prey to any unfavorable conditions. 
This is the inevitable result of their domestication from the 
earliest ages. 

Rule 3.— Sheep are fretful under disappointment. No 
other animal is so much disturbed or suffers by irregularity 
of management. Hence in all their management, in feeding 
esr^ecially, the utmost regularity is to be observed. 

Rule 4.— Although it might be thought that their woolly 
coat is a sure protection against cold, it is anly so in regard 
to dry cold. Exposure to wet, by which the fleece is satu- 
rated, chills them severely; and this on the most susceptible 
part, the spine. Hence the flock is to be protected in ac- 
cordance. 

Rule 5.— Sheep are as easily chilled inside as outside. 
Hence the water supplied to them should be pure, and never 
so cold as to chill the stomach. 

Rule 6.— The sheep*s fleece is of such a nature that ex- 
posure to wet and warmth, or pressure, causes it to felt. 
Hence a wet fleece is to be avoided, or, if it must be so, 
the sheep must not be crowded together. 

Rule 7.— A sheep is subject to a greater number of para- 
sites tham any other animal and suffers more than others 
from them. This calls for suitable precautions to avoid this 
exposure. 

Rule 8.— The inborn dependence of sheep upon mankind 
calls for the constant thought of the shepherd to study the 
necessities of the flock and to provide in advance for them. 



218 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



Rule 9.— This last rule is to be understood to apply 
uot only to number, but to every other conditioji of the 
fioclv. " Whenever the shepherd sees his sheep let him count 
them." This includes a close examination of the condition 
as well as to the numbers. 

MR. J. E. WING'S BARN. 

Economy is always in order, and a cheap and com- 
modious barn for a small breeding flock, designed by Mr. 
Wing is here described and illustrated. It is a noteworthy 
commendation of this design that it has been adopted by 
the Ohio Experiment Station. 




Pig. 6. Fig. 7. 

The posts, AA. are 8 feet tall, and in my barn will very 
probably be round white oak posts, set in the ground. They 
will not rot off in my tim.e, and when they do my boy can 
saw them off and set them on stones. 

The posts, BB, are ten feet high above ground. This differ- 
ence in height is made to allow a driveway through the 
building. This is not necessary in all cases, and it may be 
that J. R. D. will prefer to take in his hay at the end of the 
barn, and have his mow floor level, in which case the posts 
will all be of the same height. 

The plates, C C D, are of .1oist, 2x8, and are double, that 
is, one is notched in on each side of the post as shown at 
Fig. 6. These notches are cut just deep enough to leave 
4 inches of wood and of space between the joists; the 
braces then pass up between the double plates and are 
firmly spiked to them. At the foot of the braces the. post 



BARNS AND STABLES 219 

is flattened and slightly notched, and the braces spiked 
thei^. The plates on which rest the ratters are made of two 
pieces of 2x8, spiked on as shown at fig. 7. This makes a 
very strong ajid stiff plate, and is really better than the 
old fashioned mortised plate and many times easier put on. 

The rafters are in two pieces, splicing in the center, a 
lap-splice spiking together. They ave supported in the cen- 
ter bj' a purlin plate, F, which is 3x10, and sui)ported by the 
purlin posts, E E. In putting this up temporary braces will 
be used until the rafters are spiked in place, when no- fur- 
ther bracing Is needed. This purlin does not receive the 
thrust of the rafters but merely supports the weight, the 
thrust being held at the plate below\ 

At G there should be a track for a hay carrier. I prefer 
the w^ooden tracks of 4x4 and the sling carriers. The mow 
will hold about 12 tons of hay. The floor is supported by 
2x8 joists spaced 2 feet apart over the center and 3 feet 
over the side bents. 

For roof.ng I shall use the best shingles that I can get. 
We have now a good deal of iron roofing and it is not satis- 
factory. It requires paint too often. 

Siding may be of oak or pine. Pine is better, unless 
the oak has been seasoned without warping or twisting; it 
should be well nailed if used and battened. Plenty of doors 
should be used, each in two halves, the lower half swinging 
aind the upi>er half raising like an awning, hung by hinges 
at upper edge. Thus the sheep may have sun and air, 
and yet be kept in by the closed lower door. 

Here is a bill of lumber and approximate cost of same. 
I charge but $5 per thousand for the oak, as that is all it 
will cost in cash to one having the timber: 

8 posts, 8x8 (or round), 10 feet 427 ft. 

8 posts, 8x8 (or round), 13 feet 512 ft. 

8 posts, 4x8, 8 feet (purlin) 192 ft. 

69 joists, 2x8, 12 feet 1.104 ft. 

6 purlin plates, 3x10, 12 feet 180 ft. 

34 4x4 girts, 12 feet 544 ft. 

1,120 1 x4 sheeting 1,120 ft. 

1,276 feet flooring 1,276 ft. 

76 rafters, 2x5x16 .1,013 ft. 

Total oak 6,368 ft. 

Cost of 6,368 feet oak at $5 per M $31.84 

1,800 feet pine siding 36.00 

18,000 shingles 46.80 

Nails 5.00 

Labor, help about raising, etc 15.00 

Total cash outlay needed $134.64 



2^0 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



hatchet" carpenter. It is really nothing but a strong hay 
scaffold covered by a roof. Yet, if well braced as shown, 
it will be amply strong and will last as long as any kind of 
frame, and it can l>e bnilt by any man* able to own a hun- 
dred sheep. There is no doubt that it pays to shelter all 
sheep from storms east of the Missouri River, and one can- 
not afford to own sheep that he cannot shelter. 

As to the arrangement of the interior, I mean to devote 
the central division to the little Iambs, giving them access 



-i ;J O 



S\\ci^ \0T ev^es &x\;i \Oixrv\)&. 



5e.\^ H«.de.r 



>\0.vi 



C I 



V^M^ 



o 



w^^i 



^^cx'^ 



to it through a creep. Lambs are timid things, and will not 
thrive when obliged to struggle for their rations with older 
sheep. They also need a clean, dry place in which to romp 
and play and lie and sleep. The only profitable lamb is the 
happy one. 

One side is devoted to the ewes that have not yet lambed, 
requiring different food and care from those suckling their 
lambs, the other to the mothers. It will be well if possible 
to give each flock access to a dry grass-lot for exercise. If 
but one lot at hand, the ewes that have lambed will get their 
exercise in caring for their lambs. After a large part of the 
ewes have lambed, a part of the vacant side may be parti- 
tioned off and ewes and lambs put therein. 

Water ought to be in each part. 



BARNS AND STABLES. 



221 




There is not one mortise or tenon in this frame nor any 
feature tlhat cannot be readily understood l)y a cariK^nter 

Fig. 8 is an after thought, and 
shows that by making- the outer 
posts also ten feet high the roof 
will be raised two feet, and the stor- 
age capacity of the mow increased 
over five tons, giving about 17 tons 
about right for a flock of 100 ewes of 
the mutton breeds. The labor of i'ig.8. 

building with the additional height will be the same, and the 
extra cost of 288 feet of siding. 

MR. VESTAL'S BARN. 

Mr. W. B. Vestal of Indiana gives us this ground plan 
of his barn which has some excellent points: 

The building is 02x48 feet, fronts south, is twelve feet 
at the eaves and is 27 feet to the hay carrier, which extends 



/ \ 


/ \ 


/ \ 


/ \ 




/ \ 





^ 



the whole length of the building. Hay is unloaded from cen- 
ter driveway; both drives are 14 ft. wide. The center drive 
is open to the roof and cupola to afford ventilation. The 
mows are 8 ft. high. The west drive has floor over the 
center, leaving a space of 14 ft. at each end open to the roof, 



222 THE DOMESTIC SHEER 

Ample ventilation, without draughts, is greatly to be de- 
sired in a sheep barn. 

The hay racks, A, are built with flat bottom troughs in 
front, to catch scraps of hay and to feed grain in bad 
weather. B, water trough. C, well. D, dipping tub. E, 
•shearing table. F, hospital. G, nursery. H, feeding place 
for lambs, entered by creeps. K, closet, large enough to hold 
all the tools and instruments required about a sheep barn, so 
that thej^ may be found when wanted. If ear tabs, worm 
powders, cordial, and some sheep dip are constautly kept 
in stock, it will save both time and sheep. The distance all 
being the same, a 14 ft. gate, which will lift off the hinges, 
may be placed at any desired point, to divide the flock' into 
as many lots as may be desired, and a great many combina- 
tions may be had with a couple of light gates and a little 
thought. A gate placed in middle of center drive, or at post 
opposite hospital door, and one midway the water trough, 
will divide the room about equally and allow both access to 
water. The top half of the doors are on rollers, the lower on 
hinges. The doors may be fastened open and the gate hung 
in doorway. This barn will accommodate 125 breeding 
ewes, and hay enough to see them through. If more storage 
room is needed for hay, build it higher and it will look 
better. 

SHEPHERD DOGS. 

The Collie dogs are remarkable for great intelligence, 
an instinct Which seems sometimes to surpass reason; won- 
derful endurance, and activity. Without these dogs, sheep- 
keeping in many districts, useful for no other branch of 
agriculture, would be impossible. The home of this breed is 
the Scotch highlands, a locality of rocks and hills, inter- 
spersed with grassy valleys; elevated tablelands bearing 
scanty herbage, and "moors," or level or slightly undulating 
tracts covered with gorse, heather, low bushes, boggy places, 
and scattered rocks. Upon these hills sheep are kept in large 
flocks, exposed from day to day to all the vicissitudes of 
storms, mists, rains, and snows, with no other shelter than is 
afforded by the lee side of abrupt precipices, overhanging 
rocks, stone walls, or in rough sheds of poles and heather. 
Without his dogs the shepherd would be helpless to manage 
his flock in this rough country. In countries where arable 



i34 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

land bears a very high price, only such land as cannot be 
plowed is given up to sheep pastures, and here the dog is in- 
valuable; and not only here, for he is made useful upon the 
more civilized hillsides of the Scotch lowlands; upon the 
grassy downs of England, the rich farms where sheep-keep- 
ing is only incident to high culture, and upon our own 
Western plains. Everywhere, where sheep are kept, a sheep 
dog of some kind is found useful; and of all the different 
varieties the Collie is considered the most valuable. He pos- 
sesses a rare instinct for his work, which comes as a second 
nature to him. He often knows the ways of sheep better 
than his master, and understands the signals of the shep- 
herd w^hen far out of hearing, with great precision. Cases 
have been known in w^hich the dog has discovered the ab- 
sence of some laggards of the flock which his master had not 
missed, and has returned to the pasture for them unbidden. 
He can range his tlock upon one side of a road, when meet- 
ing other sheep, and thus keep them from, intermingling with 
the strangers. He Avill discover by his acute sense of smell 
sheep that have been overwhelmed in snow-drifts, and will 
conduct the shepherd to the place. If no help is available, 
he has been known to dig into the drift and release impris- 
oned sheep, and to warm chilled lambs by huddling close to 
them. He is valiant in their defence, and will give battle to 
a wolf without hesitation. No vagrant dog will be per- 
mitted to approach a flock of which he has charge. He will 
bring back stragglers when upon the march, and will return 
to find sore-foGted ones that have lingered by the way. For 
a farm dog he is of special value, as he can easily be trained 
to manage with gentleness any kind of live-stock. He is do- 
mestic in his habits. While kind and affectionate to his 
owner, and his herds, he is watchful and suspicious of stran- 
gers and strange animals. His good disposition gives him 
great influence over his charge, and causes them to have 
confidence in him. When a flock is afraid of the shepherd's 
dog, it shows wrong management on the part of the shep- 
herd, and that the dog has been badly trained. The Collie 
has long and woolly hair; a bright mild eye; a sharp nose; 
an intelligent aspect; a long bushy tail, curling upwards, 
with the end clear of the ground; and in color is usually 
black and tan, variegated with a little white. Not the least 



SHEPHERD DOGS. 22o 

woDderful vv ujserul chaiacleristic- of tliu doj^- is bis tcuaoioiis 
memory, by which he is able to remember all the turuing 
points in a joiiniey of hundreds of miles, and to recognize 
at sight every member of the tlock to which he has become 
attached. With all his good qualifications, however, he 
sometimes lapses from virtue; and no other dog is so de- 
structive in the fold as a sheep dog become demoralized 
by bad compauiclns. The Scotch and English sliepherds 
set great store by their dogs, and trials of his sagacity and 
special training, made at the numerous fairs are a matter 
for amazement by those not fully acquainted with his skill 
in managing the wildest sheep. These competitions are excit- 
ing as well as amusing. We have seen him engaged in driv- 
ing into a small pen, a bunch of the wildest sheep known, 
doubtless, the small agile Welsh mountain breed whose 
.lumping abilities are amazing. Tlie test of the dog's in- 
genuity and natural acuteness is made by giving him half 
a dozen of these nimble and willful animals, in an open field, 
to drive into a pen with but one narrow opening. T)ie dog 
is always the victor in these matches, between the two most 
sagacious of all animals. The patient skill of the intelligent 
animal in penning the sheep, in spite of their unwillingness, 
is worth crossing the ocean to see. 

Unfortunately for him, he is subject to one of the worst 
of diseases by which he is made a natural enemy of the 
sheep he watches over so well. This is the tapeworm of sev- 
eral species, which he harbors in his intestines, and which 
by one of the most curious of natural transformations and 
transmigrations, pass from the dog to the sheep. But it is 
no difficult matter to relieve him of this parasite. This is to 
give him at stated intervals, as is mentioned in the chapter 
on diseases of the sheep, regular doses of worm medicine, 
keeping him shut in during the operation of it, so that the 
worms he discharges may be effectually destroyed. 

The shepherd's dog is indispensable to the shepherd, but 
in procuring an animal it is necessary to get one well bred, 
and trained if necessary, or the expected assistant may turn 
out to be the Avorst enemy the flock may encounter. The 
pure breed only should be procured, for a cross bred dog 
may be really a damage to the flock instead of its friend and 
protector. 



CHAPTER VI. 



WOOL: ITS HISTORY, USES, NATURE, 
CULTURE AND DISEASE. 

Wool is a modilied form of hair. It is distinguished from 
hair, however, by certain special and prominent character- 
istics, while retaining to some extent other properties which 
are common to the natural covering of all animals. It has 
precisely the same chemical composition as skin, hair, and 
the feathers of birds, having as these have about 16 per cent 
of nitrogen and 4 per cent of sulphur. It is distinctly a 
growth from the skiln, being rooted in it, and drawing its 
nutriment from it, and partaking with it in precise sympa- 
thy its prosperity and adversity; growing luxuriantly, and in 
its best form, in health; but equally suffering with it in 
sickness and disease. 




Fig. 1. 
a, Epidermis, or surface skin, 6, Dermis, or true skin. 
c, Fiber of wool, with its follicles. d, d. Nutritive glands. 
€, e, Capillary blood vessels. /,/, Masses of fatty tissue, 
(Magnified 500 diameters.) 

Its manner of groswth is peculiar. Its root is a bulb 
which is inserted in what is called a follicle of the skin, 
as shown In figure 1. It is not deeply planted, and is thus 
subject to §ei"ious injury under what might be thought quite 



HISTORY OF WOOL. 227 

immaterial circumstances, ludeed, its sympathetic action 
Is so closely coucerued with the condition of the skin, that it 
might be s^iid truthfully that it lieeps a constant periodical 
re<.'ord of the daily changes in the health or welfare of tlic 
sheep. Every failure in the sheep's condition is marked by 
a weak spot in the fiber of the lieece, and when this is at 
all serious, these weak spots are so considerably develoi)ed 
as to weaken the fibers and cause them to break easily, 
and thus greatly lessen the value of the wool for manu- 
factures. 

As with many other things, modern science disproves the 
old belief that wool, as well as hair, has the forai of a tube. 
This was always stated in the old works on the sheep, and 
its care and management; but now relegated, by more exact 
knowledge, to that heap, or waste pile of errors, which grad- 
ually accumulates as we learn more of the nature of things 
through our more exact scientific instruments. The modern 
process of dividing objects for examination by improved 
microscopes, and by which we can cut sections or objects to 
a thinness of the thousandth part of an inch or less, and 
magnify them a million times with our better knowledge of 
the effects of light, has proved to us that hair and wool are 
solid and not tubular, but that they have a central core, as it 
were, which is covered by a distinct epidermis or outer cov- 
ering, smooth and brilliant in hair, but in wool serrated and 
covered with scales having sharp entangling points or 
hooks, by which the fibers, under certain conditions, become 
closely intertwined and entangled, forming a tough, elastic 
fabric which we know as felt; the common material for 
making hats. This fact is not only interesting to the shep- 
herd to know, but useful, as fumishUng admonition to him 
to avoid these conditions which are very easy to occur in 
the care of a flock, by which the wool undergoes this very 
injurious process and is thus seriously reduced in value 
to the manufacturer. 

But wool, while it retains these normal relations, and 
peculiarities, of form, yet varies very much in the different 
breeds of wool bearers. Indeed, this variation is so con- 
siderable, that it is an indispensable necessity for the sur- 
vival of an enormous industry in manufacturing wool for 
various kinds of clothing, that the culture of it, as a special 



338 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

product, has become— if indeed it has not been so even from 
pre-historic times— the chief object of the shepherd. And 
this objective necessity of the shepherd has made it indis- 
pensable that the professional breeder— if he himself is not 
an expert in this line of his business— must give much 
thought and study to the nature and product of the flocks, 
as well as the changing fashions in clothing fabrics needing 
wool. And the breeder must so develop needed changes in 
tlie sheep as to meet all the demands of the manufacturer, 
who only reflects the tastes and fashions of the general pub- 
lic who consume the goods he makes. The shepherd then 
and thus is not in precise control of the world, but he is the 
servant and purveyor for it in this regard, and he must 
keep in the front as the procession passes by, as may be said, 
and conform his movements to those of the irresistible mass 
of the public. 

There was a time when the Merino was the only kind of 
civilized domestic sheep. It furnisbed the fine wools which 
were spun and woven by the noble women of the most an- 
cient times. For in one of the earliest written books, in 
which we have the history of Job, we find the excellent 
mistress of a noble household providing in this way for 
her dependants. So the noble ladies of Rome spun and wove 
the luxuriant woolen robes, and dyed them for their hus- 
bands and fathers and brothers in the costly Syrian pur- 
ple. And this custom gave origin to our common term for 
unmarried women, viz., spinsters. And to this day the 
Merino— then the only domesticated sheep— holds the front 
place among the wool bearers of the world, counting more 
than five-sevenths of the whole number of sheep now exist- 
ing. But since these ancient days the constant progress 
in civilization, and practical comfort growing out of it, 
has greatly varied the demand for woolen goods; and for 
some centuries past breeders have given their attention to 
the development of breeds of coarser wooled sheep. Thus 
the Cotswold— oiiginated from a Spanish coarse-wooled 
variety— and the native English sheep, were improved grad^ 
ually, until the beautiful Southdown was developed and per- 
fected, and became the progenitor of most of our excellent 
short and middle wool sheep of what are commonly known 
as the Down breeds. And so this constantly improved cul- 



HISTORY OB^ WOOL. 229 

ture of the sheep continued with the result of jijiviug us the 
comparatively large variety now in the hands of breeders, 
with the constantly increasing number of Hocks in the hands 
of shepherds. 

It should be noted right here, that the chief object of the 
American shepherd, as also that of every other civilized 
country, except England, has been the production of wool; 
while that of the English shepherd has been the mutton. 
It has happened, however, that in the pursuit of the best 
mutton in the world the p]nglish shepherds have brought 
into existence an invaluable class of vv'ool sheep, now more 
than ever to be considered because the coarser and longer 
staple has been generally adopted as the material for cloth- 
ing. And the American shepherd, once a wool grower only, 
has now to meet the rapidly increasing demand of the 
most populous civilized nation in the world for choice mut- 
ton, the most nutritious and pleasant flesh food existing, 
besides catering in the same line for tlae foreign consumers. 
So that we here have two objects to pursue, each of which 
will tend to the profit of American breeders and shepherds. 
And let us here once more remark, as a very important 
fact, that in this industry, based on the sheep as a source of 
profit, there must be two distinct interests; that is to say, 
the shepherd as a producer of the final products of the sheep; 
and the breeder as the source from which must be procured 
the materials for the shepherd to y^'ork with. For there 
must be a higher and more cultivated designer to prepare 
the materials for the actual worker, which the shepherd is 
and always must be. And his materials must be the cheap 
sheep to supply the mutton aoid the wool, crossed with the 
high-bred and cultivated, imiproved rams, of pui^ blood, 
constantly improved and varied as the needs of the markets, 
and also of the shepherds— who cater for the markets — 
may call for. For breeding is an exact science, to be studied 
by experts, and a costly business wdiich is above the limit of 
the ability of the shepherd. In time we shall doubtless 
adopt the methods of the German breeders, who employ ex- 
perts to advise them and help them choose the mntorials 
for reinforcing their flecks, in regard to the maifntcnance 
of a necessary high standard of excellence in form, size, 
quality of flesh, and value of fleece: not neglecting the neces- 



230 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

sary constitution requisite for a breeder. And while the 
breeder studies very carefully the form an^ constitution of 
his favorite breed, he will not act wisely if he neglects the 
influence of breeding upon the quality of the wool. For this 
result of cross breeding for variety of wool has been found 
exceedingly effective in modifying the character of the 
fleece and adding to its value for the manufacture of impor- 
tant varieties of fabrics. 

We cannot follow down the ages the full history of wool. 
It u)ay be suflicient to merely show how it thrived in the 
most ajicient times from the very beginning of human life 
on the face of the earth, accompanying tlie savage man 
whose home was in caves, and gradually advancing 
with him as he approached civilization, until the first writ- 
ten history of our race originated. Then we find the an- 
cient sheep-skin was changed for clothing of wool, aaid the 
fleeces were a large part of the early merchandise of the 
world. Then wealth was estimated by the numbers of the 
flocks, while the sheep became the most valuable offering 
that could be made as the sacrifice to the highest objects of 
worship. 

As this ancient civilization advanced, the sheep— we may 
be sure— was brought under most careful cultivation, and 
wealthy nobles of the nations were noted for the number of 
their flocks. This advance, however, was lost to a great 
extent during that time of anarchy and slaughter which we 
know as the dark ages, in which, however, the sheep and its 
wool nevertheless continued as a valuable possession and 
necessity of life; for the heavy ransoms of captives made in 
those continuous wars were frequently made in sheep and 
wool, and such merchandise as then existed consisted largely 
of bales of wool. 

Indeed, at that period of our race, we know that the shep- 
herds seemed to control such governments as could exist dur- 
ing such turbulent times; and the Shepherd Kings, with 
their shepherd followers, led the world for a considerable 
time during which a sort of nomadic life prevailed. And as 
the dark ages passed the sheep survived, and when some 
sort of settled life became possible, it remained as one of 
the most valued possessions of our race. Thus in course of 
ages the sheep survived, in time to become the leading pur- 



NATURE OF WOOL. 231 

suit of such permanent nations as were formed out of tiie 
remnants of governments which escaped extermination, and 
an indispensable accompaniment of the gradually improving 
civilized agriculture. 

It may be easily thought that the most powerful com- 
munities settled as permanent nations, gradually improved 
their floclis until in more recent times friendly governments 
— as an indication of good will— presented selected flocks 
to others, who received these gifts with avidity and exer- 
cised great care to distribute them among the leading own- 
ers of the cultivated lands. It was in this way that the best 
sheep of Spain, where it seems that the flocks had been 
most carefully preserved and improved, were distributed 
and became the progemitors of such breeds as our present 
improved Merinos, Cotswolds and Southdo^Tis, which are 
really the original ancestors of all our present existing varie- 
ties. 

Still wool was the main object of solicitude, and leading 
breeders gave the closest attention to the improvement of 
sheep as wool producers. The rest is a matter of modern 
history, and after all we are still at work in the same line, 
and shall doubtless always be so, for we cannot realize any 
such thought that the world can ever exist as the home 
of civilized communities without the sheep as one, if not the 
first of agricultural pursuits. 

These being the facts before us, it is necessarily the busi- 
ness of the shepherd to give his attention to the best man- 
agement of his flocks for the wool product, to the practical 
understanding of the character of this staple, and the best 
means of preserving its quality aind increasing its value 
by the most judicious culture of the sheep. 

THE NATURE OF WOOL. 

The chief value of wool depends on its peculiar char- 
acter, and its adaptation to the various processes of manu- 
facture; for its usefulness in this respect dei>ends on its 
I)eculiar structure. 

A fiber o-f wool, when examined under a powerful micro- 
scope, is seen to consist of three parts: first, a central core 
consisting of what is termed medullary substa.uce. This la 
a sort of fattv matter akin to the marrow of a bone, and 



232 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



having the property of giving a softness and elasticity to 
the fiber which is one of the distinguishing features of 
wool. Over this central core is the second layer called the 
corticle substance. This is the fibrous part of the fiber, to 
which its strength is due. It contains the coloring matter. 
It is really a fibrous thread and is striped lengthwise. This 
filjer grows from the root which is seated in the nutritive 
follicle in the lower skin. It has such a formation as gives 
to it the waved and spiral character, and causes it to twist 
easily and become matted together under certain processes 
Ivuown as felting. It also enables it to sustain and preserve 
the twist which is given to it in the process of spiiming. 
But the most remarkable and special feature of wool is its 
outer covering. 

This outer covering consists of pointed scales, the ex- 
tremities oif which are sharp. These are arranged around 
the fiber in spirals. 





Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



Fig. 5. 



Pig. 2, Fiber of Merino wool. 

Fig. 3, Cross section through a fiber of Merino wool. 

Fig. 4, Single fiber of Merino wool. Fig. 5, Lock of Merino wool. 

Fig. 2. The sharp points are more distinctly shown at 
fig. 3, which represents a fiber of wool cut down the 
center. But all kinds of wool are not precisely alike in this 
respect. Fine wools as that of any one of the Merinos, are 
mare liberally furnished with these serrations than other 
kinds. In the finest Saxony wool these number as rnany 
as 2,800 to the single inch. Wool of the finest Southdown 
has about 2,000; and of the Leicester about 1,800. The fine 
wool, too, has a much more w^avy disposition, as is shown at 
figures 4 and 5. This selection of illustrations has been 
made for the purpose of explaining the peculiar property 



NATURE OP WOOL. 28P> 

possessed by wools ol" tliis class, known as felting, or adher- 
ing together in a mass, bj^ the interlacing oi the libers when 
passed through a special process. It also goes, to illus- 
trate the facility with which wool on the sheep's back may 
undergo this adherent process when it is damp, and by rea- 
son of its elasticity, and the pressure due to the sheep hud- 
dling together, and chafing the wool as well as by the in- 
fluence of the dissolved yolk— all these being accessory— the 
fleece felts, or as we say, becomes cotted. This of course is 
a serious damage; for in the carding of such wool it is torn 
into shreds; e\^en into dust when it is in bad condition; and 
is worthless for any but the lowest qualities of goods. 

But yet this peculiar character and structure of wool 
is of the utmost importance in its manufacture. For wlien 
it is carded and torn into innumerable short lengths, these in- 
tertwine, and Avhen the wool is spun it becomes aggregated 
into a thread of great strength and elasticity. It is to this 
natural peculiarity of fine wool, in excess of other kinds, 
that it is more highly valued for the finer class of goods 
which are known as broad cloths. 

Moreover it is to this peculiar nature of wool that it may 
be spun into such fine threads, that one pound of the fin- 
est reaches a length of very nearly one hundred miles. This 
all goes to show the necessity for every wool grower to 
study the final uses of his products that he may secure the 
greateist profit in the higher prices he may obtain for the 
finest of them. It is also of interest to know precisely what 
the fulling process is that is applied to the finishing of the 
fine cloths made from the best qualities of Merino fleeces. 

This process consists of oiling the wool, and then spinning 
and weaving it into the cloth. The cloth is then freed from 
the oil by steeping it in a mixture of a fine sort of alkaline 
clay, known as fuller's earth. This is followed by pressing the 
cloth, which of course brings the fibers into close proximity, 
and causes them to mat together by their sharp hooked 
scales, thus forming a firm, dense fabric. Afterwards being 
torn on the surface by a set of teasels fitted in a frame, a 
fine velvety nap is raised on the cloth, which retains the 
glossy texture of the wool. Only the finest of the Merin<i 
wools are thus treated. This result of moisture, grease, and 
pressure, with some considerable warmth, is sometimes ex- 



284 THE • DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

pei'ieuced on the sheep, which are permitted to crowd in 
close pens after the fleeces have been soaIi;ed with rain. 
The fleece then mats i,n spots to the serious injury of it for 
the manufacturer's use. 

The different breeds vary very much in regard to the 
character of the fleece. The length varies from one inch 
in some parts of the flnest Saxony and French Merinos, to 
eight or more inches in the Lincolns. The fineness varies 
as has been mentioned above. The luster also differs, that 
of the Lincoln wool and the best of the Leicester, being 
much brighter than the short wools or the fine Merino 
fleeces. The curl also varies considerably; that of the Merino 
being the most conspicuous. The serrations are much more 
numerous in the finest wools while they are far less promi- 
nent and inferior iln number in the long and more lustrous 
varieties. Thus it is that each kind of wool has its special 
uses in manufacturing, and as the demands of the manufac- 
turers, to meet the necessities of the markets for their 
products are constantly changing, as the fashions change, 
there is a concurrent demand for varieties of wools that can 
only be met by cross breeding, skillfully managed by intelli- 
gent and experienced wool growers. This necessity for 
increased varieties thus opens up a wide field for the wool 
grower in the direction of breeding for some special variety 
of wool, and thus has to be met by intelligent crossing of 
such breeds of sheep as will meet the necessities of each 
case. 

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 

As may be well thought from the remarks in a preceding 
chapter on breeding of sheep, and especially on cross breed- 
ing, the special breeding for variety of fleece must be under- 
taken only by experts, to whom the whole subject is 
familiar. That is, those having a full general acquaintance 
with not only the history of the breeding of sheep but also of 
the nature and varieties of wool, and as well as of the pre- 
potent ability of the various breeds in regard to the perpetua- 
tion in this line of their individual characteristics. One o(f the 
old breeders in his day very truly remai'ked, that the sheep 
breeder works with sharp-edged tools, with which he may 
very easily destroy his whole work by a slip of the hand, 



CROSS BREEDINa FOR WOOL. 235 

a.s it were. This is essentially true, as has Ijeeu shown b^ 
llie numerous failures made by inexperienced breeders of 
this most easily impressed animal, whether for good or ill. 
And if this be true, as regards the sheep as a mere mutton 
malver, it must be still more so in regard to it a.s a wool 
producer. And yet by following strictly along the right line 
of the skillful and experienced breeder, there is a most im- 
portant worl^ to be done in the variation and improvement 
of the fleece. AVe know what has been accomplished bj' the 
skill of the breeders in improving the carcass of the various 
sheep, and in developing new breeds by mixture of the new 
breeds with the old and inferior ones; and it is not to be 
doubted that equal improvement and variety in the fleece 
may be accomplished in a similar way bj' crossing for the 
product of new staples of wool for the demands of the manu- 
facturers. Tlie following remarks on this important sub- 
ject were published a short time ago in the columns of the 
Country Gentleman— the leading agricultural journal in the 
world— the editor of which has very kindly and courteously 
given permission for the reproduction of the articles in this 
volume:* 

"The future of the wool industry, including both the 
growth of the staple and the manufacture of it, must be 
large and continuous. The progress of civilization among 
the hitherto savage human races will undoubtedly be much 
more rapid in the future than ever before, and the dark ages 
of these imfortunate people are in course of rapid removal 
by means of commerce, and the competition of powerful 
nations for spheres of influence in the newly opened regions 
of the dark continent. Of the who'le of our race, only one- 
third are really clothed, one-third go completely naked, and 
the other third wear only the modest breech clout. But of 
the third who are considered as clothed, fully three-fourths 
are only insufficiently supplied with clothing, and luxury to 
them in this respect is a thing unknown and undreamed of. 
So that an enormous growth of the wool industry is in cer- 
tain sight, and all the resources of the shepherd will soon be 
taxed to supply these certain demands. History repeats it- 
self, and as the dark ages of Europe and Asia, have gone, 
and comfort and luxury, the growth of peace and civilized 
industry, ha ve taken the place of bloody anarchy a.nd pov- 
*These articles were contributed to the Country Gentleman by the author. 



236 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

erty, so the condition of now savage races will be in time 
changed for one of comparative civilization in which man- 
kind become purchasers of manufactured articles, and good 
clothing is the second necessity of life. 

What does the impending change mean to the owners 
of flocks and themanufacturers.of woolen goods? Nothing less 
than a steadily increasing demand for wools, and that of 
many grades suited for all demands of necessity or fashion. 
We must produce more wool, and a greater variety of it, 
and this means an increase of flocks, and an intelligent 
study of the nature of the sheep's fleece, and the possibility 
of variation of it by judicious crossing, and possibly of the 
establishment of new breeds for this purpose. 

Wool is now differentiated by breed, and by the parts of 
the sheep's body. It must not be supposed that the whole 
body of a sheep bears the same kind and quality of wool. 
This would be a wholly mistaken idea, and one that 
would stand prominently in the way of any intelligent con- 
sideration of this subject. And this is one of the most 
important things for the wool grower to study when he is 
thinking of improving his wool-bearers. The diagram here 
given will represent the difference in the quality of the wool 
of any one of the Down breeds, and approximately of that in 
a Merino. For the quality of the fleece is yet dependent to a 
large extent on the form of the frame even of the most 
highly bred Merinos, and it will be centuries, perhaps, before 
the most skillful breeder will be able, if ever, to overcome 
the tendency to this local variation in wool. Hence the 
wool-sorter's occupation will still remain, until by successful 
crossing and long continued breeding the whole carcass 
may bear wool of a high value if this were desirable. That 
it will be desirable to the wool-grower seems to be certain, 
although there is a necessity for many grades for the manu- 
facturer. „ ^ ^^.<f''0i^ 

The wool from the center Q \ 3^ ^ ..-■■S.^ 

of the sides, marked 1 in the | ^ / '■ -'■"" /f^ 

illustration is of the finest I. I, '' ..,-•< i 

quality. At 2 and 3 the fleece {^^^^"^^^^^^^^^ [hi/ 
becomes coarser and shorter, ](\ aW 

and as the breech is ap- "^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 



CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 287 

proaclied, at 4, this coarseness, and leni^th, too, are increased. 
The most interior part of the fleece is on the belly and brisket, 
as at 5 and 0, that on the legs being almost like hair. Every 
Merino breeder will kno^Y how much has been done with 
that breed in bringing the fleece to a more even sameness 
of quality, for in some of the Merinos the belly wool is 
much better than in the Down breeds, and the leg wool is 
wool down to the hoofs. This exemplifies the possibility 
that exists in the improvement of sheep by successful cross- 
ing. The wool buyer takes note of this difference, and it is 
this, which he recognizes by feeling when he handles the 
fleece, that causes him to give a better price for the fleeces 
of one flock than he will give for others. This is one of 
the essential points to be considered in choosing the rams 
to be used in crossing as well as in selecting the flock of 
ewes. 

That cross-bred sheep must be the main dependence of 
the wool grower is as certain as an axiom. There is not a 
sufficient supply of pure bred sheep to produce all the wool 
required, and there never will be any suflicieut uniformity 
in the pure bred sheep to keep the staple of even quality. 
Many breeders make many breeds; even of one race. We 
cannot keep twenty flocks of any breed all started alike, 
and from the same origin, an alike and without sensible 
change for ten years, but in that short time these flocks 
will exhibit surprising differences. This is very well known 
to breeders, who must exercise the most rigid selection 
to keep their standard of excellence intact. Thus the 
slaughter-house is one of the absolute necessities of the suc- 
cessful breeder, and as there are weeds in flocks as in fields, 
the weeding of the breeder is as necessaiy for his success 
as is that of the farmer or gardener to them. But. divide a 
flock into twenty, and put these divisions into separate 
hands, and all skilled to some extent, and there will be as 
many different flocks in ten years. Thus the breeder's occu- 
pation will remain, as indispensable to the integrity of any 
breed, and the wool gi'ower will improve his wool by cross- 
ing native sheep or grades, gradually getting nearer to the 
pure bred fleece, but never up to it, by the use of pure 
bred rams selected judiciously to mate his ewes. 

These facts will show the importance of the wool grower 



338 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

liaviug- an ideal. And also of having siicli an acquaintance 
witli sheep as will enable him to reach his objective point 
most readily. The majority of wool growers will not be 
breeders, that is, working skillfully for the creation of some 
new breed or strain, that will become fixed in lime; and 
this for the reason that we have now as many breeds as will 
supply all demands for wool, and if any new evolution 
shall ever occur in the wool trade, this will be so gradual that 
it may doubtless be met by a parallel change in the product. 
It is evident to any one who is in touch with both these 
departments of the wool business, that we need to produce 
more of that class of wool that comes from high grade 
Merinos crossed upon other and coarser wooled sheep, and 
this for the purpose of getting the finest of the Merino, with 
the heavier fleece from the heavier carcasses of sheep, that 
will supply mutton. And for the too numerous natives, we 
want the improvement by the Merinos for the supply of 
these grades. And the wool grower who has mastered all 
the intricacies of his business will purchase his grades and 
the rams, and thus furnish a market for the first hand sheep 
— the improved natives. And this should bring us to the 
English system of great sheep markets, where a hundred 
thousand head or more may be found at the right time 
for the purposes of the purchaser in each locality where this 
business is carried on. We have needed these markets, and 
the want of them is an obstacle in the way of making wool 
growing as popular as it should be. It cannot be doubted 
that America is soon to become the greatest sheep and wool 
producing country of the world, and with this product of the 
raw material, there must be a corresponding enlargement 
of manufacturing. This consummation will make necessary 
two classes of shepherds— the breeders of high grade sheep, 
and those of pure-bred rams for one; and for the second the 
breeders for wool and mutton by crosising. 

Sir Walter Scott, in his story of the Black Dwarf, rep- 
resents no doubt an actual occurrence in the conversation 
between two Scotch shepherds of his day, in which both 
agreed that "it was the woo' that paid the rent." By which 
it may be understood that it was the clear profit of the 
flock, the cost being paid by the mutton, And the same may 
be said to-day. 



CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 239 

This is consistent witli reason, if we had not the exixTi- 
enee of 2,0()0 years to support tliis common belief, ^^'o()l is 
a product of human ingenuity and sldll. Tlie slieep is a gift 
of nature as tlie wild fruits are, but the fleece is the result 
of culture, as are the sweet and luscious fruits protluced 
by the art of the grower. And it is all the more easy to 
effect whatever purpose may be desired in this way because 
of the plastic nature of this most easily influenced animal. 
One of the most prominent sheep-breeders of England once 
sakl: "You may chalk out upon a wall a perfect form of a 
sheep and then go to work and give it existence by means 
of breeding and culture." The same is equally applicable 
to the fleece as to the mere animal frame. Every existing 
breed of sheep has been differentiated from the wild races 
by human agency. More than 2.000 years ago the fine fleece 
of the Merino was evolved by the painstaking culture of the 
wealthy Roman proprietors of Spanish lands, from a native 
race theretofore unheard of. But the demands of wealth 
and luxury gave the impetus, to which the products of the 
Roman matron's distaff and looms soon became accessory, 
by which the luxurious imperial robes and soft attire of the 
Roman ladies were derived from the ancient Merinos of 
conquered Spain. And from that day to this the plastic na- 
ture of the sheep has enabled the breeders from their chalked- 
out patterns to bring into existence the Electoral race 
of Germany; the Naz sheep of France with their exquisitely 
fine fleeces only 24 ounces in weight, and an inch or less in 
length of fiber; as well as the largest of its kind— the French 
Rambouillet— with its 30-lb. fleece of wool 5 inches long. 
And between these comes theAmerican Merino, the best sheep 
of its kind in the world, as the product of the best mind and 
skill in the world, for in this no other country surpasses ours, 
and this sheep has gone wherever Merinos are bred for the 
improvement of other related races. 

Thus I hazard the statement the result of long experi- 
ence, and study of the sheep, and from the laws of breeding 
that are accepted by all breeders, that the Merino must take 
the first place in the crossing of all inferior breeds for the 
production of the best wools for the staple manufactures 
that come between the lonig coarse, and the short fine, 
fleeces, and for which th^ demand is now greater than ever 



340 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

and promises so to continue. The more than 2,000 years 
of successive breeding gives to this sheep the greatest pre- 
potency, and thus the males have always been found to 
exert the most conspicuous eifect upon other sheep bred to 
them. The wool, too, is so firmly established in its char- 
acter that the produce of a cross has from the first a close 
resemblance to the wool of the sire, and after two or three 
crosses it becomes to all purposes a Merino wool. But for 
the improvement of the coarser-wooled sheep the selection 
of the rams is the most imi[>ortant matter to consider. We 
must here revert to the principle involved for a rule of prac- 
tice. It is really a scientific, almost a mathematical problem, 
as thus: given a certain value to be decreased in quantity 
by division or subtraction, then the larger the value of this 
quantity and the less that of the other to be taken from it 
the greater the value of the remainder. The Merino ram has 
greatest natural force, due to its long inheritance, while the 
ewes chosen have less but a greater natural susceptibility. 
For instance in all improved breeding of whatever animals 
we do not put a thoroughbred dam to a scrub sire, but the 
reverse, and in six such crosses we think we have a progeny 
in all material respects equal, except for breeding, to the 
sires. It is the progeny of the pure bull and the common 
cow that makes the valuable grade for the dairy or the 
butcher, but no one thinks of reversing this method except 
when the breeder of sheep, wanting to refine the fleece, does 
this, and makes the coarse wool the top cross and makes a 
certain failure. For in most of the efforts to make a cross- 
bred sheep the larger coarse-wooled ram has been put to 
the Merino instead of reversing this, and getting the prepo- 
tent effect just in the line desired. 

The Merino has the fine fleece, and the weight of it. It 
has the extreme hardiness; rams of this breed have lived 
and served in the flock to the age of 26 years. The writer 
had one 13 years, when it fell a victim to the wandering cur. 
And it had the potency of its lineage. Hence for the im- 
provement of wool with any kind of ewes it may be the first 
choice. Doubtless the cause of most of the failures in at- 
tempts at crossing with this breed has been the mistake of 
making this strong breed the under cross. Such a failure 
was made by a French breeder w^ith the Merino crossed by 



CKOSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 241 

the Leicester, but the error was quickly discovered and rec- 
tilled. The produce was an animal as small as the Merino, 
and having a light, open fleece, short like the dam's. 
It was wrong- both ways, as might have been expected. 
The small dam brought a small Iamb, and tlie loose fleece of 
the ram only lightened witliout lengtliening th;K of the cross. 
But on reversing the method an excellent cross was" pro- 
cured, having a 10-lb. fleece as fine as that of the sire, and 
a lamb that at two years old made as much weight as the 
Merino at three years. 

The cross of the mutton breeds on the Merino has been 
productive of weakness in the offspring. Its effect is to 
lengthen the staple without increasing its density, and the 
want of constitution six)iled the sheep itself. But the re- 
verse cross has been all the other way. This will be better 
shown in the next article when illustrations of cross-bred 
wool will be given. Density in the fleece is necessary for 
protection from stress of weather, and from excess of dirt; 
it also gives the weight desired. The Merino also confers 
the yolkiness upon the fleece, which is one valuable agent 
for the protection of the wool in every way. Thus it has 
been found that the most wrinkly and yolky of the large 
Merinos make the best cross on the Downs and the long- 
wools. And this is the more reasonable because these 
wrinkled sheep are the possessors of the naturally strong 
constitution of the race, and have not been bred down to 
secure a change of natural character. 

The large Merino then is also the ram for improving the 
common native ewe. It may be quite possible that a first 
cross of the smaller Merino might be better as a start for 
this purpose, but so far, excellent results have been gained 
by this cross. This cross will then be continued, for there is 
nothing in the dam worth perpetuating, and the high grade 
will be kept as a permanent flock, but always with a pure 
ram for its leader. 

In all the pursuits of life, whether intellectual, mechan- 
ical or industrial, each person must have an ideal which is to 
be the ultimate object in view, and for the* attainment of 
which the nature and variations of this ideal are to be 
clearly understood. Thus the sheep breeder, whether his 
object may be the carcass for mutton, or the fleece for wool. 



242 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



must chalk out, so to speak, the ideal before him, and then 
devote every etTort to attain this end. The wool grower 
must then know something about the nature of his product, 
its special character, its differentiations under varying cir- 
cumstances, and as well the needs of the manufacturer of 
his staple, and the results upon the quality of it of mistakes 
or accidents in the management of the flocks. 

Heretofore the precise nature of wool has been only 
supei-ficially or erroneously described in the books that have 
been taken as authorities. It is only necessary to examine 
the various illustrations given in such pretentious works 
as the encyclopedias, to perceive how little has been l^nown. 




Fig 



through what might be called popular science, of the char- 
acter of wool; and as far as the possibility of a breeder 
of "sheep or a avooI grower getting any fair notion of what 
wool is, the student might as well examine the structure of a 
rope or a chain cable, to get an idea of that of a silk ribbon. 
The regular and methodically -placed imbrications upon the 
fiber, alternating equally like shingles on a roof, are mere 
creations of th.e imagination, due to imperfect study of the 
fiber under an inferior microscope, that is inexcusable in 
any modern work. Instead of this regularity of position 
and consistency of form in these imbrications, there is a 
great variation in both respects, as may be seen in the 



CROSS BREEDING 1<()K VV()(3L. 



243 



aocompanying drawing's, of which tig. represeuts the 
scales on the outside of the fiber, H^. 7 the cross section 
of the fiber, fig. 8 the greatly magnified cross section of the 
interior fibers with the outer scales; fig. 9 a fiber of Merino, 
and fig. 10 one of Cotswold wool. 

The epithelial scales (fig. G) are seen to be exceedingly 
irregular in shape, and being laid around the wool, they 
give the appearance to it as shown at figs. 9 and 10. In 
the drawing of Merino wool, the longitudinal fibers which 
are seen endwise in figs. 7 and 8 are to be seen, and in 
fig. 10 is shown the dark pigmentary matter that is a 
special mark of the Cotswold fleece, and which will be more 
particularly mentioned hereafter as having a special refer- 
ence to the detection of Cotswold blood in various cross-bred 
sheep having more or less of this blood in them. 





Fig. 7.— Cross Fig. 8.— Cross sec 
section of fibers, tion magnified. 



Fig. 9.— Fiber of 
Merino wool. 




Fig. 10. 



The character of wools of different breeds varies greatly 
—so much so that by a careful study of them, and some prac- 
tical experience, the breeder may gather much information 
as to the purity of his flock, and with what breed it may 
have been mixed. And this special characteristic of the fil)er 
is easily seen to be a most important element in this study 
of cross-breeding, for the quality of the fleece is everything 
to the manufacturer, and equally so to the wool grower who 
sells his fleeces to him for what they are worth as a staple 
for the goods made, and as well, it may be said, as to the 
healthful and perfect growth of the staple. This is also very 
important. At fig. 6 is shown a fiber of Southdown wool that 
is imperfect by reason of some defect in the condition of the 



244 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

sheep. Wool gi'OAVs from tbe skin. Every day the tip of the 
fiber is pushed higher from its base by the daily growth. Its 
substance is derived directly from the skin, certain secre- 
tions from it supplying the bulb or root of the fiber, that is 
imbedded in what are known as the hair (and of course 
wool) follicles (see fig. 1). The precise nature of wool 
may be learned from these figures: 

, Composition of , 

Skin. Wool. Hair Horn. 

Carbon 50 99 50.65 51.53 51.99 

Hydrogen 7.07 7.03 6.69 6.72 

]sitrogen 18.72 17.71 17.94 17.28 

Oxygen and sulphur 23.22 24.61 23.84 24.01 

As nothing comes of nothing, and everything in the 
world is made up of elements that must be supplied to it for 
its growth, so with wool. If any part of its elements are 
wanting in the food, or is diverted by reason of some special 
disoi-der of the sheep from the nutrition of the skin, and 
from this, of the wool, there is a weak spot. The fiber is 
thin and defective in strength. If the food is in excess at 
any time, and production of blood is increased, the opposite 
condition prevails— for a time only, for excitement from 
whatever cause is sure to be followed by a corresponding 
relapse, and in such a case we find first a thickened fiber, 
followed by a thin and weak one. This may be for a short 
time only, as is seen in that part of the fiber on the left, 
while on the right there is an indication of some lengthened 
disturbance of the condition. 

Wool is differentiated more especially by its serrated or 
imbricated surface, its length and fineness; and in the Merino 
by its peculiar waviness or crimp. And in these respects the 
different breeds vary so cooisiderably that the expert shepherd 
or wool grower, as w^ell as the wool-sorter and manufacturer, 
may be able with ease to distinguish the fleece of each breed. 
The biologist may even trace the mixture oif blood far away 
back by these special peculiarities, and thus it is most im- 
portant for the breeder to study this matter with care, 
and examine samples from his flock under some good micro- 
scope. It is even possible to distinguish in the wool of any 
pure-bred sheep the marks of any ancestor that might have 
had some special individual characteristic in this respect. 
This part of this interesting subject will be more fully dis- 



CROSS BREEDIN(J FOR WOOL. 24.") 

cussed and illustralcd in llic next and (((iK-liidiu.i;- articles o( 
this series. 

Here we waut to eoiisidei- what tlie wool is, ciiielly. The 
scales of which the outer part of the wool is made up, 
may be compared to those of a fish in the geueral manner 
of their position on the fiber. They all lie In one direction 
from the root of the fiber upwards, as the scales lie from 
the head to the tail of the fish; so that if one draws a lock 
of wool through the fingers, from the root end upward, the 
fibers slip smoothly through them. But if the wool is drawn 
from the tip to the root, the harshness and roughness is quite 
perceptible. These serrations are exceedingly small. In the 
finest Merino ^Saxonyj they number 2,800 to an inch; in the 
Leicester— as we shall see in time, it most closely resembles 
the Merino in the character of its fleece— these serrations are 
about 1,800 to the inch. These numbers refer to the points 
presented by the scales all around the fiber, and not to the 
margins of the individual scales, as shown in these illustra- 
tions, in which only the bordering lines are really shown. 
The coarser wools may have no more than 500 serrations to 
the inch. 

The diameter of the finest Saxony fiber is from 1,500 to 
1,800 to an inch. An average Merino fleece will be one 
750th of an inch in diameter. Coarse carpet wool- is about one 
250th of an inch. Tliis special fineness of the fiber, its ser- 
rated edge and crimp, are easily seen to have much to do with 
its value to the manufacturer, who may make of it the finest, 
softest and lightest goods. And as the Merino fleece may be 
taken as the basis of computation of value and fitness for 
use of all other wools, it may be readily perceived how the 
peculiarity of its wool may be graded down by judicious 
crossing so as to meet every need of the manufacturer for 
the largest variety of staples. 

Had the manufacturer of the finest or the coarsest cloth- 
ing fabrics, with all the experience, skill and ingenuity that 
the most accomplished could possess, set himself to invent a 
fiber just suited to his needs, he could scarcely have pro- 
cured one that meets every want so well as wool, with all 
its points of adaptability, excellence and variability. And 
the wool-gi-ower must perceive all this and guide himself 
in accordance with his knowledge in the pursuit of his indus- 



246 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

ti-y as a purveyor and producer to the manufacturer, so as to 
make available all these necessary' points, of adaptability 
for the varied uses of his product. 



o 

oo 



o 



O 



Fig. 11.— Southdown. Merino. Fig. 12.— Leicester 

Wool is generally of two classes— fine, short and carding 
wool, and long, coarse and combing w^ool. This distinction 
used to be more strict some years ago when Merino wools 
could not be combed, as some are now by improvements in 
machinery. But it still prevails, only the longer-wooled De- 
laine or French Merino is classed with the combing wools 
because of its longer fiber. The Merino and the Southdown 
represent the short-wool class, while the Leicester, Cofs- 
wold and Lincoln are tj^pes of the long wools, and the 
Shropshire, Hampshire and Oxford come between these two 
as middle wools. 

Each of these breeds has its special peculiarity to be 
studied for its own uses and value, and also for its adapta- 



e 

o 






Fig. 13.— Lincoln. Cotswold. Oxford, 

bility for crossing. It is a. maxim among breeders that easy 
steps are more satisfactory than jumps in the union of 
breeds, and the more nearly the two varieties approach each 
other in character the better they "nick" together. Violent 
crosses are rarely satisfactory. In studying the three groups 



CROSS BREEDIN(i FOR WOOL. 24'7 

of wools by their cross sections, as shown in figs. 11, 12 and 
13, it will be seen that there is a nearer approach between 
11 and 12 than between those in group l.'i. and that the Lei- 
cester and Southdown vary but little in the fiber from the 
Merino. It may be said here that in cross breeding these 
more closely related breeds have been mixed with far greater 
advantage than the more unlike breeds. And the Merino- 
Leicester alike in fineness of fiber and nearly approaching in 
other respects, has made the best of all the crosses that have 
been attempted between the short and long-wooled sheep. 

So, too, it may be pointed out at this time, lest it may not 
be fully regarded hereafter, that the effect of the Colswold 
on those other breeds upon Avhich it has been crossed for 
some special object other than the fleece, has left its most dis- 
tinguishing mark upon the other breeds, by its "dash of 
blood," as It is termed in the conspicuous central pigment 
cells that were originally a distinct mark of this most potent- 
blooded breed, and which to-day is so special a peculiarity 
of its fleece, as to mark the trace of its blood in all the 
breeds with which it has been mixed, and as a detector of 
impurity in their blood. 

For the purpose of this discussion we may assume that 
there are only four really pure breeds of sheep concerned 
in the production of our present varieties. These are the 
Merino, which merits the distinction of being the oldest 
race in existence; the Cotswold, which comes next; the 
Southdown and the old Hampshire. These are all worthy 
of distinction because they have been the origin of all our 
present breeds. Perhaps we may leave out of this category 
the Merino, which stands alone as a special breed that has 
held a singular place in the world as the most valuable wool 
producer at any age, and is destined so to remain, except as 
in the future we may find it to be of the greatest value in 
the improvement of other sheep for the production of what 
may come to be called cross-bred wools. 

Then we shall have the above mentioned three breeds, 
and possibly the old Lincoln (as the origin of the Leicester) 
might be thought to deserve a place and make out an even 
four, excluding the ^Merino. Every one of these has under- 
gone such a course of improvement as to be wholly remod- 
eled. This change has been due to mixture of new blood 



248 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



to some extent, but mostly to the most skillful selection 
by tlie old breeders, who built up our finest races of cattle 
as well as these sheep. And the prepotency of these original 
breeds is shown by the comparison of the wool, and by trac- 
ing how the peculiar character of the fleeces has survived 
in the improved races. This evidence will show how it is by 
the fleece that may be traced the lineage of the newer 
breeds, and also give reason to believe that quite as great 
victories in this pursuit may yet remain to be achieved. 

Attention is directed to the drawings of the wools named. 
The fibers have been magnified 310 diameters. The size of 
each is the average— some fibers may vary as much as 25 
per cent either way. They may thus average about l-650th 
to l-800th of an inch in diameter. Tliey come under the 
category of coarse wools. We may trace in these first the 
efl"ect of the Southdown upon the old Hampshire, and per- 
ceive distinctly how the smoothness of the scales has modi- 






FiG. 14. 
Old Hampshire. 



Pig. 20. 
Southdown. 



Fig. 21. 
Cotswold. 



Fig. 15.— New Fig. 16. 
Hampshire. Oxford. 



fied the uneven and ill-formed epithelium of the old Hamp- 
shire, which we l^now was a large, bony, big-headed, coarse- 
wooled sheep that was fed by the Romans in Britain twenty 
centuries ago, and Avhose wool supplied the first factory 
erected by them, and worked on English soil. Looking at 
the fiber we can easily imagine what kind of a sheep this 
was; that it was not fed as well as the modern sheep, and 
thus the fiber was uneven in diameter, and rough and harsh 
and crowded in length. 

In the study of the effects of crossing sheep for variety 
of wool we may take as the most prominent examples tliese 
two moderni breeds, the Hamipshire and the Oxford, two 
l^inds of sheep classed among the so-called Down breeds. 
The former originated in a cross of a native white-faced 
horned sheep kept in the district around the county of Hamp- 
shire in the south of England by a pure Southdown. This 



CROSS BRKEDING FOR WOOL. 240 

cross is an example of what has beeu previously mentioned 
in a former article, viz., the prepotency of the pure and 
standard bred ram upon the ewe, for in this cross breed 
we find the white face and the thin fleece and the horns, 
as well as the ewe, changed for the black face, the close 
fleece, and the bare forehead of the improved race, now, l)y 
close breeding, having these points fixed and maliiug a per- 
manent characteristic of this breed, the new Ilajnpsliiie. 
The drawings of the wools of the three breeds from which 
these two have beeu produced will show very clearly, as 
clear in fact as the form and appearance of the animals 
themselves do, how the iulluence of the ram has been exerted 
upon the fleece. 

If we study tlie make-up of the pure Southdown wool 
and then that of the old Hampshire sheep, whose fleece was 
coarse and uneven in its fiber, and compare these with 
that of the new Hampshire, we can trace easily the mixture 
of the two bloods in the variation of the fiber; how it has be- 
come even, finer, and how it shows tlie half-way appearance 
of the imbrications between the two. Then comparing the 
last two, the Cotswold and the Oxford, we find distinctlj^ 
the Oxford fleece to be equally affected by the influence of 
the more vigorous blood of the older breed in the same half- 
way appearance of the imbrications on the fiber and in the 
fineness of it. And in every instance we find these same re- 
sults when the older and prepotent breed, because of its 
longer line of breeding, has been crossed on any other one. 
At the same time the under cross has always given its 
greater weight of fleece to the half-bred progeny. 

Thus it is that this cross breeding is no haphazard busi- 
ness, but is a truly scientific operation, needing two or more 
elements in it, each of which is to be chosen advisedly, and 
with a distinct purpose, as indeed all breeding must be to be 
successful. One may as well expect to hit a mark with a 
rifle with his eyes shut as to try to effect any useful purpose 
in whatever line of breeding he may undertake without he 
first takes the pains to fix the punwse of the breeding, and 
then selects the materials with some well-defined view of 
what he is attempting to produce. Even then there may be 
disappointment, for it is not every animal in any specified 
breed that is sure to meet the hopes and expectations of the 



;^50 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

bueeder, and thus it is that there must be many failures to 
be disposed of and continual study aud comparison of results 
before a satisfactory result may be attained. It is a life- 
worli rather than a chance, and the assistance of the manu- 
facturer who needs the wool for his special purpose should 
always be given in the work. The wool grower and the 
manufacturer should therefore be in clos^ communication, 
and this not onlj^ in the distinct line of cross breeding, but 
as well in originating and carrying into execution the union 
of breeds, or individuals of the breeds chosen as the instru- 
ments of the breeder. 

In the illustrations we have first the two elements of 
the new Hampshire, the old Hampshire and the Southdown, 
making an impi*oved breed both for wool and mutton; a 
solid carcass, with the size of the one and the fineness of 
wool of the other. Then we have the new Hampshire and 
the Cotswold, a new aud an old breed, united to make the 
Oxford having a coarser wool than the ewe, but a finer fiber 
than the ram, and in these changes it is as easy to trace the 
different bloods as if colors had been mingled. 

At fig. 15 we see the effect of the prepotent Southdown 
blood in refining this wool, giving its cup-form scale, upon 
which its softness, pliability, elasticity and less aptitude to 
felt in manufacturing depends. By careful comparison we 
may trace the infusion of the Southdown influence in the 
improved sheep, which was, however, bred not for wool 
but for mutton, and yet the wool we may see has been made 
more valuable than that of the old race. It was also double 
in weight of fleece by the larger carcass of the improved ani- 
mal. And the fiber has been just so much changed as to be 
adapted to a wider class of woolen goods than that of the 
Southdown. 

Then we study fig. 16, the Oxford Down, a large sheep 
of the Cotswold type, but as we see modified as to the fleece 
by the influence of the Hampshire (the Southdown indi- 
rectly) and the old Lincoln through the Leicester. The re- 
sult of these crosses has been to make of the rougher 
worsted Cotswold, a softer, finer fiber, suited for the finer 
woolens used for man's softer clothing, shawls and knitted 
underwear, for which the long, less adherent Cotswold fleece 
is not fitted. 



CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 



251 



Then we go on to the new Leicester, bred from the mam- 
moth coarse- wooletl Lincoln.' Fig. 17 sliows the character of 
this wool, which measured 14 to 10 inches in length, and 
had so little tendency to the felting quality as to be made 
into the loosest kinds of fabrics, such as fringes, braids and 
bindings. This monstrous slieep was out of date 100 
years ago, when Mr. Bal^ewell had progressed somewhat in 
building up his favorite sheep, known at that time as the 
Bakewell, but afterwards as the improved Leicester, and 
considered as the very acme of skillful breeding. This suc- 
cessful breeder told few of his secrets, but it is known that 
he started with the Lincoln and used the Southdown as the 
sire, to remodel the coarse ewe into a smooth, silk\'-fleeced 
sheep that should make the finest mutton in the world; 
a quick feeder, having a good, smooth carcass, much fat, 
and as it happened as the result of this special character of 
the animal, a producer of fine, soft, silky wool, of which 
the best fabrics could be manufactured. It should be no- 
ticed that every improvement in the carcass and in aptitude 
for feeding and for early maturity told equally on the wool, 
and by study of the Leicester fiber (fig, 18) we see the result 
—a wool almost of the Merino character, but 8 or 10 inches 
long, suitable for the fleeciest fabrics, as the soft nubias, 
and especially dear to the patriotic heart, as the material 





Fig. 18.— Leicester. Fig. 17.— Lincoln. Fig. 19.— Shropshire, 
of the emblem of freedom that waves over the American 
capitol. This wool is the material of which the dress bunt- 
ings are made and the soft head dresses of the farmer's 
wives and daughters, when they make their evening visits. 



252 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

It is wholly of the Merino class, except for its length and 
want of curl, and makes a most excellent cross with the 
Merino. 

We pass on to the most useful cross-bred sheep we have, 
the Shropshire, and there we find perhaps the most remarka- 
ble of all the results of cross-breeding upon the fleece. This 
sheep has been little thought of as a wool-bearer, but to the 
wool student it has a special fitness as an example of what 
has been done by crossing, for future use in this direction. 
Fig. 19 shows a wool that is unmistakably made up of the 
Southdown, tig. 20, Leicester, fig. 18, and Cotswold, fig. 21. 
The mingled features of these three fibers are as plain to be 
seen as the three primary colors in the rainbow. The cupped 
form of the Leicester, modified by the closer imbrication 
of the Southdown, and the more uneven outline of the. Cots- 
wold, are all plainly to be found in tliis drawing; and the 
wool of this most popular sheep, next to the Merino, finds 
its place in the manufactory in special uses for which the 
sorter puts it on one side. 

All these specimens are of the coarser clothing wools. 
They enable the manufacturer greatly to extend his classes 
of goods and find variety to please the M^earer. That this 
opening for variety is filled, we cannot believe. In fact we 
must believe the very contrary, for if there is any one thing 
the world is pining for at this time, it is variety in every 
way. And thus the wool grower may well exercise his in- 
genuity, or tempt fortune, in attempts to strike something 
new that may be valuable and increase the demand for 
wools of all kinds. The opening is enormous. Twenty years 
ago we boasted of an annual product of nearly 70 million 
pounds of wool; now we think 300 million pounds a small 
affair, to be increased as may be possible. In this vast in- 
crease, we have surpassed all prognostications of experts. 
How much more we may progress in the future, who 
can tell? We are using nearly as much foreign wool as we 
produce, and much of this we may grow at home. But we 
may look for changes such as have occtirred in late years 
in the greater use for long Merino wool, and we cannot doubt 
there are many special qualities that will come into exten- 
sive use as soon as they appear on the sheep's back. And 
this must grow out of crossing the breeds we have rather 



CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 25:i 

tbau out of uew breeds. We have abundant material for 
this work, and in it the Merino, I feel convinced, will take 
the first place. 

As an instance of the result of special necessities in tlie 
production of wool I would recall a passage in a most able 
and exhaustive address made by Dr. Hayes, the President 
of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers a few 
years ago, in which he mentioned the fact, that the great 
popularity of the Cotswold sheep during the years of tht* 
civil war, grew out of the requirements of the trade for a 
coarse wool for the manufacture of warlike materials, such 
as buntings, saddle-girths, epaulets, trimmings, coarse blan- 
kets and overcoats. When the war ended this demand 
ceased, and the Cotswold suddenly became as unpopular 
as it had been otherwise before. Now, said Dr. Hayes, 
the demand is for a finer combing wool, as that of the Leices- 
ter, which furnishes the material for a large variety of 
dress goods, and is so highly valued for its silkiness, fineness, 
and lustre. This kind of wool is mostly imported from Eng- 
land, for the reason principally that American farmers 
will not take the pains to grow the roots which this class 
of sheep— or any other for that matter— must have to pro- 
duce the best wool. This fresh, succulent food is indispen- 
sable for the best condition of sheep during the long, dry 
feeding season of winter, and until our wool-growers 
will adopt this manner of feeding we cannot hope to do the 
best we may, in the production of the best wools, and es- 
pecially of those lustrous combing wools of long, fine staple, 
such as that of the Leicester, the French ]\Ierino, and the 
crosses of these which have been found so desirable in 
France for the manufacture of the excellent dress goods 
which we pay so highly for. 

In this production, the Merino, and especially the Kam- 
bouillet variety, must hold the most important place. Tt 
seems probable that this long-wool, large-bodied sheep, is to 
take the first place as a wool producer, and that the short- 
wool sheep must follow the yet shorter Silesia into compara- 
tive insignificance, for the reason that the fashion of cloth- 
ing has changed of late years, as it did fifty years ago. when 
the fine nap broad-cloths went out of demand, and the more 
varied napless cloth came into use. And as there is still 



254 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



some demand for even the finest and shortest wool, so there 
will be for the medium Merino fleece. But it is clear that the 
tendency is to the use of longer wools and somewhat coarser 
fiber. This will be supplied by the Rambouillet Merino, 
with its crosses and varieties known by various names: Me- 





FlG. 22. 
Ram— M eri no— E we. 

rino, fig. 22; Cots wold, fig. 21; Southdown, fig. 20; Shrop- 
shire, fig. 19; and Leicester, fig. 18; and those of our com- 
mon American Merino, which has hitherto been of such 
enormous value to American breeders. The illustrations 
here given will go to show how great a variety of wools 
may be produced in this way, and that with the natural 
increase in the consumption and demand for various kinds of 
wools, the Merino will not find its occupation gone, but 





Fig. 23. 
Yz Merino and Southdown. 



Fig. 24. 
^Merino. M Southdown. 



greatly increased, as the progenitor of rams for cross-breed- 
ing, and in addition to its own special use as a wool-bearer, 
for the supply of numerous fabrics that will never go out of 
fashion. 

In all these samples we may perceive the effect of the 



CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 



25* 



strong blood, and in some the result of lK)th sides, as if there 
were a struggle for the preponderance. The five drawings 
are of the parents of the crosses which follow. When we 
study these cross-bred wools we are impressed by the fact 
that the first two crosses vary considerably, showing the in- 
fluence of both parents, and as these are both of the strong- 
est blood, the two oldest breeds in existence, this is not an 
unexpected result. But in the third cross tlic two most un- 





FiG. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27= 

Fig. 25, % Merino and Southdown. 



Fig. 28. Fig. 29. 



Fig. 26, 15-16 Merino and Southdown 

Fig. 27, % Merino, 14 Shropshire, and y^ Southdown. 

Fig. 28, 14 Merino and Leicester. 

Fig. 29, 2£ Merino and )i Leicester. 

like samples are still so nearly of the same character as to 

show that by this cross a decided change has been effected 

and a true cross-bred wool has been protluced. 

Fig. 27 shows distinctly the influence of the Shropshire 
ram on the % Merino, and y^ Southdown ewe. The fiber has 
a decided Shropshire character, with enough of the other 
mixed blood with it, to make a distinct class of wool. 

Figs. 28 and 29 show a distinct variation due to both par- 
ents. The cross has been found most 
desirable among the French and the 
Leicester is in demand to supply this 
kind of Avool as well as to produce the 
fines-t kind of mutton, a larger carcass 
of meat, and a larger fleece with the 
lustre and smoothness of the Leicester, 
and the fineness and softness of the 
Merino. 

Figure 30 is a fiber of wool taken fig. 30. 

from a Cotswold-Merino ram bred by ^/s Cotswoid and Merino 




256 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

the late Joseph Harris and given to the writer by him. 
This sample shows how two strong- natural tendencies are 
combined in almost equal proportions, as may be easily 
perceived by comparing figs. 21 and 22 together. The fiber 
of wool of this cross was seven inches lon^, when stretched, 
had considerable crimp, the yolkiness of the ewe, and none 
of the looseness of the ram's fleece. To my mind this was 
the most successful cross for wool that I have seen, as it w^as 
a most satisfactory cross for marl^et lambs to the breeder. 

This is a subject for much consideration and experiment. 
It is suggested in this line. The evidence goes to show 
that there is a wide field for enterprise and careful study 
in this cross-breeding. And if sheep-breeders can succeed 
in producing a flock that will yield any more desirable fleece 
than we now have for any special purpose, and at the same 
time yield good mutton by the use of the large-bodied Me- 
rino on any of our other breeds, and especially upon the na- 
tive sheep, now the least profitable of all kinds, much good 
will be done to all concerned. I offer no further suggestion 
to intelligent readers, but simply present the evidence which 
I have gathered." 

THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 

"The wool grower," is a very fit term to apply to the 
shepherd. The Avool is indeed grown, and this only by 
quite as much skill and attention to every detail and neces- 
sity as the ordinary farmer applies to the growth of his 
crops. Foi- these must be fed, or they fail to produce the 
quantity or quality of the desired product; so the wool 
grower must feed his flocks for this very same purpose— the 
crop of wool Avhich he gathers from his sheep annually. 
Wool, we know, is an outgrowth of the skin, produced by 
the proper aliment by w^hich the flesh and its coverings, 
the skin and its fleece, are nourished. All through the his- 
tory of the sheep we find that the feeding and general cul- 
ture of the animal have been the means by which the ends 
desired and worked for, have been attained and s-ecured, 
and made a permanent acquisition of the sheep thus im- 
proved. We are too often told that it is breeding which has 
produced these improvements in the domestic animals. If 
this is true, then we have gained something from nothing, 



THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 257 

for as we have seen iu a previous cliaptcr. it is a uatural 
law that 'iilve shoiihl produce like," and ;,t tlie host we c-aii- 
iiot «aiii anythiug- more than the mere Iikenfs« of the original 
animals we are breeding, and we shall do well if we gain 
only this, and nothing more. 

This palpable fallacy is mischievous and misleading; and 
tends, not to the advancement of any object in view, but the 
distinct contrary. In all the instances which have been 
given in the preceding pages, we have s(>en that every inr- 
proved breed has been made through the selection .'f the 
best animals to be procured, and that tlie methods by whi( h 
these have been made superior to tlie common stock.'even of 
the same breed, has been by the most generous and skillful 
culture. So that we may fully accept the fundamental law 
laid down for use by all the scientific breeders and philo- 
sophical students in this line, and make it the rule for the 
management of our flocks for the purpose of getting the full 
profit from them, that the feeding must be a special accom- 
paniment to the breeding and an indispensable part of the 
culture of improved animals. 

Experience all through the history of the sheep goes to 
show, that to sustain excellence in them the feeding must be 
fully maintained. The English breeders from whom we 
have procured our best animals have had a certain system 
through which they gained the high position held by their 
flocks, and if this is so, as cannot be gainsaid, we must fol- 
low in their steps, if we would hold our own, not to say 
make any advance on their high position. 

It is alleged that the English shepherds depend mostly on 
the mutton for their profit, and that the wool is a mere inci- 
dent iu their business, and not any serious object of pursuit. 
We must not be misled by this fallacy which is contradicted 
by all the past history of English agriculture, and the main 
part of it as is accepted by all concerned. For the sheep has 
been, and still is, considered as the very basis of successful 
agriculture in Great Britain, and indeed in every leading 
agricultural nation of Europe. The very foundation of the 
successful agriculture on the high priced lands of Europe 
is the feeding of sheep, just as it' was alleged to be in ancient 
times. It is true the mutton is an important incident in 
the shepherd's pursuit, but this is the growth of flesh. And it 



358 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

happens tliat in making this high condition of the sheep 
the fleece cannot help but take its share of it. We all know 
that a poor sheep yields poor wool, inferior in quantity and 
in quality as well. The condition of the fleece is a. certain 
key to the condition of the bearer of it. We have seen that 
the flesh and the fleece consist bath of the very same ele- 
ments, and the oil and yolk of the wool, which are 
a certain indication of quality of it, are equally supplied 
through the very same aliment by which the body of the 
sheep is supported. We cannot divert the aliment of any one 
part of an animal from one product of it, and make it wholly 
contributory to another, and a different one. Nature has its 
laws which are inviolable, and cannot be transgressed with- 
out disaster. So that we may be sure we cannot feed a flock 
to make an excellent and fully healthy carcass, without 
gaining similar results in every part of it, the covering of it 
as well as the body itself. 

Again. Every fact in the experience of feeders of sheep 
goes to show that any failure in the regular feeding of a 
sheep is marked by a Aveak spot in the fiber of the fleece. 
If the failure is serious the wool is so weak and inelastic 
that it breaks in the mere handling, and with the slightest ten- 
sion. Let us refer back to the illustration of this fact given 
at figure 6, in which is seen very distinctly the eflCects of a 
fault in feeding, and in the nutrition of the sheep from which 
the sample of wool was taken. It is a rule in the alimenta- 
tion of all animals, that the most important parts and func- 
tions are first provided for by the disposal of the nutriment, 
and the remainder goes to the support of the least necessary 
parts. So that every other part of the sheep must be sup- 
plied in excess of its wants before the least necessary parts 
are supplied. Then it must follow, that unless there is a 
surplus of proper aliment after the mere body has been fully 
supplied, the fleece will be the first to suffer. Consequently 
the feeding of the sheep for the growth of the fieece is to 
be made as much of in the management of a flock as for the 
support of the life itself. Generosity in this regard is a para- 
mount necessity for the product of good wool. 

We have said that the English feeders excel in regard 
to the mutton of their sheep. Their way of feeding is espe- 
cially adapted to this end, Their mutton is fat and the fat 



THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 259 

is now not so much laid on the eaic;tss just undor the skin as 
it used to bo, wlion tlio four-yea i-oM wetlier was tlie prime 
niarlcet sheei). ^o\v it j,'oes to market at half the aj,'e, and 
really before it is fully grown. This naturally ehauj^es the 
old style of mutton sheep which had two inches of fat on the 
outside of the carcass. As the animal was then fully grown 
and was not making flesh, the fat could only l>e disposed of 
in this way. But the scarcely maturely grown wether of the 
present fashion is made up of quickly grown flesh, in which 
the fat is intimately intermingled all through. And this is 
made by the same process of feeding from the birth of the 
lamb as was formerly applied to the full grown animal only. 
So that it cannot be otherwise than that the fat in the ani- 
mals is evenly distributed all through the young flesh, weigh- 
ing half as much as the former aged one. 

The result of such generous feeding from birth canncjt 
be doubted. The body is fully supplie<l, and there is a sur- 
plus Gf nutriment which goes— where? Necessarily to the 
fleece. And thus, whether the English feeder of s-heep in- 
tends it or not, he is a wool grower quite as much as the 
shepherds in Argentina or Australia or Africa who shear 
their sheep as long as there is wool enough to pay, and then 
boil down the carcass of the old sheep for the tallow. 

And just as wrong feeding tends to disease of the sheep, 
so it is productive of disease in the fleece. Why it should 
not be put in this plain and simple way there is no reason, 
for if the animal may be diseased in any part of it. in the 
skin even, why not attach this same distinction to the wool? 
It puts the matter in a more forcible position to the wool 
grower possibly, and will give him a better idea of the im- 
perative necessity for avoiding all errors of management 
by which the wool is injured. And the first of these is in- 
suflicient feeding; the next is undue exposure to sudden 
changes of weather. It is not so much the kind of weather 
the sheep are exposed to as frequent and serious changes, 
without any reasonable shelter. The sheep is easily suited 
in every way, but while it may be thought its fleece is a 
protection against changes, it is quite otherwise in fact. 
It is a protection against cold, if this is continued, but sudden 
changes from warm to severely cold weather are as seri- 
ously felt as if the sheep had only its bare skin. It is so in 



360 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

all concerning this easily susceptible animal. Any kind of 
steady, unchanging conditions it will withstand, but changes 
are as ti*ying to a sheep as to a person who is wrapped in 
a heavy overcoat every day in the year. 

The most common disease in wool is that commonly 
called brealc. It cannot be perceived by the nalied eye, but 
Is very easily discovered by stretching a small locli of wool. 
Then any weak spot in it breaks, and this if examined under 
a microscoije shows this kind of defect (fig. 32) in the fiber. 
This sample was taken from the fieece of a sheep which had 
died through exposure and starvation, on the range, and the 
severity of its sufferings may be understood by comparing 
a fiber from a sheep well cared for through the same Winter 





Fig. 31. Fig. 32. 

Healthy ttber of wool. Break in wool— A diseased fiber 

in the same locality with it (fig. 31). These samples were 
taken from the common native sheep which have a small 
infusion of Southdown blood in them, somewhat far back, 
but still show it in their occasional smutty faces and legs. 

This defect is equivalent to a diary, or nearly so, of the 
sheep's condition. When the first failing occurs the weak 
spot is of course at the skin, but as the fleece grows this 
weak spot is carried up, and although the fault may not hap- 
pen again this evidence of it remains in the wool. If it is 
repeated, the same failing is marked on the record, and so on, 
until the sheep is shorn, when the fleece is worthless if it is 
badly defective, and lessened in value proportionately with 
the amount of defect in It. It is really the most common 
defect in wool. 

Another disease is that commonly known as stripy wool. 
This affects the fleece in the most valuable part of itj 



THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 261 

that is on the side near the shoulder. Tliis kind of wool 
is Vvithout elasticity, harsh, and without the curl or wavy 
fiber of the best wool. It is most distinct in the Merino and 
the curlj' long wools, as that of the Lincoln. Such wool is 
dead and lifeless, without elasticity, and may be pressed 
by the hand into a ball, as so much cotton fiber might. Of 
course its value to the manufacturer is depreciated, for it 
can only be used in inferior goods, as to mix with shoddy, 
to hold the stuff together. 

Another defect is known as toppiness, which is a sort 
of felting of the fibers at the top of the fleece, by which it 
causes waste in the carding. This is a result of uneven 
growth due to a continued period of good feeding or condi- 
tion of health, followed as it might be by hardship in the 
Winter, on exposed ranges for instance, or by want of shel- 
ter in the smaller farm flocks. In the lamb it may be only 
a temporary condition, but in an old sheep it is a drawback 
to its use as a lamb bearer, for this, as all other defects in 
the fleece, are inheritable. It is one of the points to be 
thought of when stock is selected for breeding. 

Felted wool is a decided disease, arising from a constitu- 
tional or a temporary impairment of constitution. The wool 
is naturally weak and devoid of sufficient yolk to lubricate 
it, so that it does not move smoothly but chafes in the mo- 
tions of the animal. Then when wet weather happens, and 
the wool becomes wet to the skin the fibers adhere, and in 
time becomes matted together in bunches, causing a 
serious loss in the combing or carding of it. This fault 
is most common in the rather harsher wools of the Downs 
varieties, under such inferior conditions as do not provide 
sufflcient nutriment to sustain the best growth of the fleece. 
When this felting is less apparent and occurs only at the bot- 
tom next the skin as the results of damage later in the 
growing season, or to inherited tendency to the fault, it is 
known as clouding, and appears as a flossy condition of the 
fleece near the skin. This is easily removed when it exists 
•in long wool, that is combed, because the combing removes 
this soft fiber, but it causes waste and a loss even in this way. 
In short wools it is not so objectionable as the carding mixes 
it with the other wool, and it has no unfavorable effect 
in the succeeding processes. But in examining animals for 



262 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

breeding this defect is one to be considered as objectionable, 
and considerably reducing the value. In every addition to 
the flock, of a father for the lambs, the highest excellence 
only should be the main consideration. For as these defects 
are constitutional one Icnows not what others may be hid- 
den in the animal to appear in time in his progeny. 

Broad topped wool is that kind which splits at the top 
and down some way into the fiber. The surface of the fleece 
may appear all right, but when the wool is parted it is found 
that the fibers are adhering together some way down, thus 
dividing the fleece into masses which cannot be parted with- 
out tearing the wool apart with some force. This matted 
fiber is dead wool, and is a total loss in the manufacture of 
the finest goods. This is an inherited defect, and to be con- 
sidered in the choice of a breeding animal whether ram or 
ewe. It may be pardoned to some extent in the ewe, for ob- 
vious reasons, when extra good quality otherwise causes this 
to be overlooked; but it is unpardonable in a ram because 
the fault may effect the whole produce of the flock. 

A kempy sheep should be discarded en sight. This disease 
is entirely constitutional. In breeding stock it is a fatal ob- 
jection. A^'herever it exists it is to be found all over the 
sheep. It is a residue of the old lineage from the wild ani- 
mal, and that it is still existing goes to show the force of 
the inheritable tendency to go back to a distant ancester. In 
this case it means some thousands of years, since which it 
has been continuing in the blood. It is recognized by the 
short, coarse hairs mostly found on those parts of the sheep 
where the wool is the lightest, and the shortest; as on the 
face, upper part of the legs, inside the flank, and on the 
scrotum. When any sheep is found to be thus affected, the 
same hairs may be found on examination all through the 
fleece, and as these harsh hairs do not take the dye as the 
wool does, this kemp is a serious objection to the manufac- 
turer of any kind of fine goods. This of course reduces the 
value of such wool and the bearers of it. It thus lessens the 
value of the fleece one-half, and it is not possible for the 
wool sorter to separate it from the actual wool. It is some- 
times found in the wrinkles of the very heavily fleeced Me- 
rinos, and may thus be sorted out at the expenditure of a lit- 
tle extra labor and waste of wool, but it should be the ob- 



THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 263 

ject of every advanced breeder to exterminate this worthless 
part of the fleece, by selecting out as much as possible all 
the kempj^ sheep from his flock. Ther^e is no reason why this 
should not and may not be done. Breeders have covered 
the Merino, and indeed other breeds of sheep, over with 
good wool doAvn to the hoofs, and other breeas have been 
improved in a similar Avay, thus adding very much to the 
product of a flock. It needs only the elforts of all concerned, 
and possibly such suggestions as this to the advanced breed- 
ers, to rid all kinds of sheep of every defect, and as far as 
each may in his allotted time, do everything in his power 
to leave the world in this respect somewhat better than he 
found it. No one has any use for kemp, and it should be 
obliterated from every flock, just as we may say of the 
horns, which to a large extent have been got rid of except in 
the Merino, and why not in this breed, which might doubt- 
less be brought to put the matter thus wasted, and Avhich is 
precisely the same matter as that of wool, into the fleece? 
This remark also applies to certain other diseases of the 
fleece, indirectly, and directly diseases of the skin, through 
which the w^ool is affected; such as scab, the most costly of 
all this class of diseases, Avith other parasites, by which the 
shepherd is troubled, and which might easilj' be eradicated 
by the destruction of these creatures in a. sure and certain 
way, as has been shown by the effective measures taken in 
Australia for the destruction of the scab mite. This result, 
although not yet completely effective, has been so far at- 
tained as to prove the possibility of this end in the course of 
a short time, when all concerned shall have adopted the 
measures by which a large number of flocks have been com- 
pletely freed from the disease. There are several diseases 
of this class due to the action of parasites, chiefly vegeta- 
ble, and varieties of fungi of a low order, which directly at- 
tack the wool and feeding upon the fibers cause these to split 
and become entangled in a mass. These diseases also affect 
hair in a. similar manner. In general it may be said that 
these and in fact every disease of the skin, and some consti- 
tutional disorders, are in effect diseases of the fleece, but 
these will be noticed fully in the last chapter, which is de- 
voted to diseases of the sheep particularlyo 



264 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



UNIFORMITY IN WOOL. 



A serious defect in wool may not be strictly a disease, 
but it may be a result of a poor condition of the sheep due 
to some mistake or neglect in the management. The best 
and finest wool is found on the shoulders, and this is made 
the standard of the whole quality of the fleece. If, as com- 
pared with this, the wool on the sides, thigh, rump, and 
breech, approaches it in quality, the better the fleece will be 
all through. An equality in fineness of these parts of the 
fleece makes the fleece even as to the fineness of the wool. 
A general regularity of length of wool on these parts of the 
body, makes the fleece even in this respect of length of 
staple. The density of the fleece is tested by closing the 
hand upon the wool of a part of the loin, and on the rump, 
and if it is found that the fleece is as thick and close on 
these parts as on the other portions of the sheep, the density 
of the wool is even. The perfect fleece is nearly equal in 
fineness of staple from the shoulder to the thigh; and if the 
wool is nearly equal in length at the shoulder, the ribs, thigh, 
and on the back, the density is equal on the shoulder and 
across the loins, and there are no defects, due to the diseases 
above mentioned, the wool is uniform. A perfect fleece 
is really a certificate of perfect health in the sheep and of 
the good management of the flock by the shepherd. The 
even growth and quality go to prove the evenness and regu- 
larity of the general management and the concurrent thrifti- 
ness of the flock. 

WASHING SHEEP. 

Wool necessarily becomes charged with many impurities 
during the season of its grow^th. Dust adheres to it by rea- 
son of the oiliness and viscous nature of the yolk. The se- 
cretions of the skin gather in it, as well as the filth of the 
sheep. There is an excessive perspiration exuding from the 
skin, more or less as the season excites it. All these foreign 
matters add much to the weight of the fleece, and reduce its 
general value to the buyer, who usually deducts one-third 
from the current prices as compensation for these impurities. 
As a rule some variations occur in this regard by reason of 
the quantity of impurities existing in the wool. This is due 
to the manner in which the sheep have been kept, the kind of 



WASHING SHEEP. 265 

pasture on which they have fed, and other obvious circum- 
stances. So that any undeviatiny; rule for tliis deduction 
must be a manifest injustice to the owner of the flock. There 
may be a full half difference in this respect in the fleeces 
of different flocks. So that the custom of brook-washing, as 
it is commonlj^ termed, is resorted to for the purpose of 
cleansing the fleeces from the greater part of these impuri- 
ties. This semi-barbarous process is not only far from 
effective, but it is seriousjy hazardous to the health of both 
the shepherd and his sheep. Unless the water is pure, and 
the bed of the stream is free from mud or sand, the wool 
comes from the operation at times mere heavily charged with 
impurity than before it was washed. On the whole this 
process is justly becoming obsolete, and if the wool is to be 
washed on the sheep's back the operation should be per- 
formed under the most convenient and effective arrange- 
ments. 

Such an arrangement consists of a suitable enclosure for 
the sheep on a green clean sward, and in which a catch pen 
as described on page 214 is arranged. A suitable boiler is 
used by Avhich the water may be kept at an average heat of 
eighty degrees, in the washing tank. This is reached by a 
sloping platform, enclosed at the sides, along which the 
sheep is led by an assistant. As soon as one is washed in 
the tank at the end of this platform it is discharged through 
a passage way into a clean, grassy plot, and the next one is 
taken in hand. As it is required the water in the tank is 
renewed, and it is an excellent way to help the washing to 
clip off the most filthy tag locks behind the sheep and have 
these w^ashed separately after the sheep have been finished. 

No soap is required in this process, the yolk of the wool 
being a natural soap. It consists of a little less than one-half 
water, and more than one-half fatty matter akin to a com- 
mon potash soap. The potash in the yolk is so abundant 
that in large establishments it is recovered from the waste 
water and sold. Besides the soapy yolk there is about eight 
to ten per cent of oil in the fleece, but this is not generally 
removed by the washing, some being left in the wool. It is 
not desirable to carry the washing so far as to rid the fleece 
of its oil; the result of this is to make the fiber harsh to 
the hand, and to that extent render It unsatisfactorv to the 



266 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

buyer. This, however, is avoided by adding a moderate 
quantity of some non-drying oil to the fleece the day after 
the washing is done, thus restoring the softness and elasticity 
to the fiber. If two weeks are permitted to elapse before 
the shearing, and the sheep are kept in a dry, clean grass 
field, the wool will have regained its natural softness. 

It is a question among experts whether excess of yolk 
is a desirable quality of a fleece. The old authorities in this 
regard favored the largest quantity of yolk. The leading old 
writer on sheep, Mr. Youatt, was of the belief that no 
amount of yolk might be thought excessive. But the old 
beliefs have generally been discarded in the majority of in- 
stances, in all kinds of scientific matters, for the reason that 
these things were only very partially understood half a cen- 
tury ago, and we have a far better knowledge of the reasons 
for things now than were then possible. Mr. Randall, one 
of the highest early authors on sheep, thought— as most 
of his successors do to-day— that excessive yolk was a waste 
of material for no use, and the matter of it might be more 
economically disposed of some other way. As nothing comes 
from nothing, we may be sure that the shepherd must pay 
in some way for the yolk in the wool, just the same as the 
wool itself costs an equivalent of money spent in feed, of 
which it is a product. But yolk is an absolute necessity for 
the well growing of the fleece, and an abundant supply of it 
is a great safeguard against some of the diseases of wool 
above described. But this matter may be left to work 
itself out as every other of the same sort is doing, and will 
do, by the good sense of the intelligent leaders of this great 
interest. 

SHEEr DIPS AND DIPPING SHEEP. 

One of the most important parts of the management of 
sheep, next to the feeding, is the occasional dipping of the 
flock. This is essentially a process of cleansing the skin, 
and avoiding the diseases of it, and the fleece together, 
that may be reached in this way. This process is essential 
to the welfare of every flock. Generally it is gone through 
once a year. But experience and a considerate reduction in 
the cost of the process, have tended to encourage the practice 
of dipping twice and even three times in the year. Twice 
in the year is really indispensable for the health and comfort 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 267 

of the flock, consequent upon the improved condition of ihe 
iskin, the removal of the injurious and tormenting parasites, 
and the result inj;- improved growth of the fleece. In general, 
this process is thought to be merely necessary for the cure or 
escape from that pestilent disease, the scab; but really 
this is only one incident in the question as to how many 
time.s in the year we ought to dip the sheep. 

Upon reflection, as to the nature of wool, and its com- 
plete relationship to the skin, we may well be assured that 
w-hatever conduces to a healthful condition of the skin is 
equally conducive to the welfare of the fleece, and the gen- 
eral experience of those large sheep owners who have prac- 
ticed a biennial dipping of their flocks, goes to prove be- 
yond question that it has more than paid the whole cost 
in the increased yield of the fleece, as well as the improved 
condition of it, by which, its market value has been Increased 
sutiiciently to return every dollar expended in the process, 
besides insuring such comfort to the flock as has greatly aided 
in their feeding for market; in the ability of the ewes to 
bear and feed better lambs; in the growth of the lambs; 
and in the important saving in labor consequent upon this 
betterment of the flocks. The comfort of mind of the shep- 
herd is also something to be thought of in this connection; 
for when the flock is known to be free from all the discom- 
forts and diseases incident to a diseased skin, and the per- 
secution by bloodthirsty parasites, the shepherd may be 
happy by day and by night, and enjoy the sweet sleep which 
is the perquisite of the just and industrious and thoughtful 
and successful man. 

There are a great many kinds of dips, and of all that we 
are acquainted Avith. there is only one which is not useful 
and effective for the purpose, and what is of the gi^atest 
importance safe for the she^p. and fatal to the parasite for 
the destruction of which the dipping is practiced. But more 
than this, every one of these dips are really antiseptics; that 
is, w'hile they destroy injurious parasites — the scab-mite, 
the bloodthirsty tick, the lice and the fungoid parasites of 
the wool, as well as of the skin — they cleanse the skin from 
the accumulated gathering of its secretions; they open the 
pores to a healthful function; and thus free the sheep's 
system from the dangerous probability of the absorption of 



368 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

unwholesome matter in the blood, by which diseases of 
various kinds are sure to happen, and which give vast trou- 
ble and anxiety to the shepherd, as well as intiict upon him 
heavy losses. It is always best and cheapest to avoid 
troubles of any and every kin(J, and this process of dipping 
the sheep tends to avoid many difficulties, some unthought 
of by the owner of a flock. 

The one reserved dip above suggested is that sulphur and 
lime mixture which has been so highly extolled and recom- 
mended by some of the amateur shepherds, whose field of 
labor is at Washington, the seat of our paternal and watch- 
ful (Tovernmeut. This dip is one of the most injurious that 
could have been suggested or invented. It will doubtless kill 
the scab insect and the ticks, too, and most effectively, for 
it will destroy the fleece and the sheep as well, and it is a 
plain fact that where there are no sheep and no fleeces there 
will be no parasites to annoy the shepherd. And this will 
be the inevitable result of the use of this most offensive and 
acrid stuff. 

Lime, we all know, is used by the wool pullers to loosen 
the fiber from the sheep skins. It is one of the most effective 
depilatories, and must be used with the utmost caution. By 
its combination with sulphur it does not lose this destructive 
action on the skin, and when used for a dip for sheep this 
excessive caution is something impossible, except for some 
professional veterinary to exercise during the use of the dan^ 
gerous stuff. Even then, w^ere it the only thing in existence 
for this use it would be open to the most serious objections 
and would in many instances destroy flocks to which it 
might be applied Avithout due caution. 

The objections to this wholly injurious and unsafe dip 
are increased in force by the fact that there are many 
excellent preparations for dipping sheep that are safe, effect- 
ive, and cheap; even better in all these respects than any 
home made dip; such as that of tobacco and sulphur. And 
these are obtainable on demand always of the same strength 
and effectiveness, and most easily applied to their special 
uses. We may mention just here, that for use when acciden- 
tal infection of the flock by ticks may happen, that the use 
of sour buttermilk poured along the back and led down the 
sides of the sheep by skillful use of the hands will rid the 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 269 

sheep or the lambs of the pests. This devise may be useful 
in case the regular dipping- may not have had its complete 
desired effect, or the sheep may have piclved up a fresh 
stock of the ticlvs in any waj'. 

. A word should be said as to the arsenical dips. These are 
verj^ effective in use, and safe, except as to one circumstance, 
which is possible danger to the lambs if they are permitted 
to join the ewes until the wool has completely drained off. 
The same may be said in regard to the tobacco dip. 

This, however, is given only as a hint to the owners 
of small flocks; it cannot take the place of the regular dip- 
ping apparatus, or the regular dipping preparations in the 
market. It may also be of interest to all concerned in re- 
gard to the lime and sulphur, or sulphide of lime, to mention 
the fact that the actual experience of a well knoAvn wool 
scouring establishment, in which some wool from sheep 
dipped in this highly caustic mixture was scoured, and after 
the finishing was found to be so much iaiuued as to briug less 
money than the wool of sheep dipped with the other prepara- 
tions in the market. This is to be expected from the known 
character of this caustic compound. For whatever will de- 
stroy the skin, must have a similar result on the fiber, which 
growls from the skin. This is no new remedy for scab, 
as it is called, either. It was recommended by a California 
chemist twenty or thirty years ago, and was mentioned in 
the U. S. Agricultural Report of 1876 as a cheap preparation. 
It is cheap certainly, as to its cost, but experience in Cali- 
fornia goes to show that in practice it was a very dear 
thing. 

Sheep are dipped in troughs arranged in many ways, as 
the fancy or convenience of those concerned may dictate. 
For a small flock a trough twelve feet long, eight inches 
wide at the bottom, and thirty inches at the top. with a suf- 
ficient depth to cover the sheep except its head, which is 
held up as it is passed through the trough, the body being sub- 
merged sufficiently to enable the assistants to thoroughly 
wash the animal and reach every part of the skin. The dip- 
ping liquid is kept at a temperature of something over a hun- 
dred degrees, up to a hundred and ten or twelve, by frequent 
additions of hot liquid from a heater adjacent to the dipping 
trough. It is diluted to the right degree in strict accordance 



270 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

with the directions given by the makers of whatever clip is 
used. These directions should be followed strictly, as they 
are based on accurate exijerimeuts and long practical ex- 
perience. 

After having passed through the dipping liquid the sheep 
are kept in a pen adjacent to it and having a tight floor 
sloping back to the dipping trough, into w^iich the excess 
of the dipping liquid drains. After sutRcient draining, the 
sheep are let into a lot where the fleece may dry. But ewes 
with lambs are to be kept apart from the lambs until the 
fleece is completely drained. 

It is no harm if some struggling sheep should take some 
of the dip into its nostrils. Indeed some of it may reach 
the hiding places of the annoying bot-fly, and in the violent 
sneezing of the sheep from the effects of the dip, these pests 
may be ejected to the great relief of the sheep. That the 
sheep in this process may be subject to such accidents as this 
is a good reason why injuriously caustic preparations, as the 
exceedingly corrosive sulphur and lime mixture, should be 
avoided. The regular dips in the market are all, not only 
effective as a sanitary wash for the skin, but used after the 
shearing they are healing in their effects on any cuts that 
may be made in the shearing. Immediately after the shear- 
ing is a. good time for the dipping. There is no w^aste of the 
dipping liquid, and the process is very much simplified and 
eased as compared with the dipping previous to the shearing. 
It is an indispensable precaution to be taken, not for the 
cure of the scab disease only, but for its prevention; and 
evei*y reasonable flock ovk^ner— we think— would favor a na- 
tional law by Congress making dipping obligatory as not 
only a cure for diseased sheep, but as an effective means 
of totally eradicating this pestilence. 

SWIMMING DIP TANK. 

The following plan is used with success: 

The swimming tank should be from fourteen to fifty feet 
long and five feet deep, eighteen inches wide at the top and 
not over six inches wide at the bottom. The tank should be 
made of two inch tongued and grooved boards, closely fitted 
together so as to avoid leakage. At one end the tan.k 
should be tapped with holes for heating coil, Thisi coil 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 



271 



ybould be run to a stove or fire conveniently located, and 
constructed on the same principle as anj^ ordinary kitchen 
hot-water boiler, and having at the same time, kettles close 
by in which hot liquid and hot water can be obtained for re- 
plenishing the dipping tank; or if you liave no coil with 
stove, have kettles and heating apparatus sufficiently large 




lece- 



to keep the tank well supplied with hot liquid at the degree 
required, namely, one hundred to one hundred and twenty 
degrees, according to the kind of dip used. 

At one end of the tank should be constructed a chute, 
just wide enough to admit one sheep at a time, say eighteen 
inches. On the other end draining pens should be arranged 



272 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



large enough to hold about thirty sheep, so they cau stand, 
amd the surplus ooze drip off and be returned to the dipping 
vat. These draining pens will be found quite an economy 
when large flocks are handled. The end of the tank 
nearest the draining pens should have considerable slope, 
and cleats be nailed across for the sheep to walk up on. 

A CHEAP PORTABLE DIPPING VAT. 

The accompanying cut shows a handy and inexpensive 
dipping vat, which can be constructed with the appliances on 
most every farm. It is made of one and a quarter inch 




tongued and grooved boards, put together at the joints with 
pitch, and is furnished with handles, by which it can be 
moved from place to place. It may be six feet long, three 
feet wide and three feet deep. The sloping ends have cleats 
nailed across them on the inside, by which the sheep are as- 
sisted to get out of the vat, upon a draining floor placed to 
receive them. 

SMALL AND LARGE TANKS USED ON THE RANGE. 

A Utah wool grower gives the following excellent plan 
for both hand and swimming tanks: 

For a herd of 2,500 head I would recommend the small 
tanks as cheaper, easier made, and having less dip remaining 
after the herd is dipped, and easier cleaned out during the 
process of dipping as more or less mud will accumulate in 
the bottom which must be cleaned out every day or two. 

The annexed diagram explains itself. 

"A," platform of boards nailed to 2x4 inch scantling 
which are laid on the ground. 

"B," dipping tank, 30 inches deep, 48 inches long, 24 
inches top measurement, 10 inches on bottom. 

"C," sloping platform, which drains into tank "D." 

These are placed in the shearing pen, or in a pen contigu- 
ous (at the option of the shepherd), the sheep Is grasped by 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 



273 



the hind leg, thrown on platform "A," one man grasps the 
hind legs, another the front, and the sheep is gently lifted 
into tank "B." (which is two-thirds full of dip) with his 
back down, and is held in that position for two minutes; he 
is then lifted on the platform 
"C." the excess of dip squeez- 
ed out by one hand, turned 
6ver and the other side served 
the same way, the dip run- 
ning into the draining tank 
"D." The dip can from time 
to time be returned to tank 
"B." While in that position 
the sheep can be examined 
for age, feet trimmed if neces- 
sary,' and branded by the 
paint pot in the end of the 
tank. And here let me im- 
press upon sheep owners the 
necessity of branding as well 
as ear marking; it saves an 
endless amount of trouble and 




BRAND FOR MARKING 
SHEEP. 

ill feeling should your sheep 

mix with others, which is 

often the case. One man can 

brand 3,000 sheep when run 

into the shoot. Once tried 

you will always continue the practice. With this tank four 

men can dip, mark and brand 500 sheep ,in ten or twelve 

hours, and at the same time prepare the dip and sack the 

wool, relieving each other at the tank; if more capacity is 

required another platform and tank can be placed so as to 




274 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

also drain into tank "D." Some sheep men let go the sheep 
in the tank, when he Avill quickly turn himself, and if scabby 
some "special" (i. e. stronger) dip be applied. 

I used these tanks for several years and was well 
pleased with them, but for larger herds an entirely different 
tank is reqr.k'ed wherein sheep can be handled more expedi- 
tiously. 

The tank here described is now universally in use: 
"A" is the shoot for large corral; "B" is a sloping board 
over which the sheep in attempting to pass to decoy pen ''C* 
slide into tank "D" which is generally twenty feet long, four 
feet six inches deep, and sixteen feet at the bottom, thus giv- 
ing it a slope at the outlet of four feet, tAvo feet Avide at the 
top, and eight inches at bottom, thus compelling the sheep 
to swim in the middle of the tank, "E" is a board fastened in 
the tank Avith cleats on it to enable the sheep to obtain 
a foothold in Avalking out. "P F" are draining pens (water 
tight) and sloping to sluice box in center which carries the 
dip again into tank "D, " "C" is a decoy pen containing a 
feAA-^ sheep to entice the sheep into the shoot. "H" is a pen 
to dodge into any sheep not required to be dipped. "L" 
is the dodge gate. This tanlv can be made of one-inch pine 
boards, and lined Avith gah'anized iron (No. 20 will do), which 
makes it water tight, and gives no footing to the sheep. 
*'K K" are pieces of 2x6, twelve feet long, bolted lengthwise 
of the tank and four feet from each end, and six inches 
from top of tank, leaving a tAA^elve inch space through which 
the sheep must put their heads, and preA^enting those in rear 
from riding those in front and thereby drowning them, at the 
same time Ivceping their backs under the dip. While in the 
tank the scab can be broken up, teeth looked at, and as they 
pass out, branded. The draining pens "F F" are regulated 
by a gate whereby the sheep escape from the draining floors, 
and can then be combed. 

Many dispense with the sloping board "B" and use pen 
"H," particularly Avhen the ewes are heavy with lamb the 
sheep are dropped carefully into the tank rump first. A boy 
is often placed behind sloping board "B" with a short stick 
to push the sheep in as they pass over it. One or two men 
stand at the tank to regulate the passage of the sheep, ex- 
amine teeth, break scab, brand, etc.; 2,000 is a usual day's 



276 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



work and that number can easily be passed through this 
tank in ten hours. 

A KANSAS SWIMMING TANK. 

Our friend, David Fox, gives the following plan for a 
swimming tank: 

My working utensils con- 
sist of one dipping vat (fig. 1), 
two boilers (fig. 2 2), one dip- 
ping floor (fig. 3 3), divided in- 
to two departments, one sheep 
yard (fig. 8) with a small three- 
corner pen (-fig. 9) next to the 
dipping vat, which is of great 
convenience for catching 
sheep; all of which are shown 
in diagram. The vat is made 
of two-inch clear lumber, well 
braced and bolted together so 
that it is perfectly water tight, 
sixteen feet long at top, twelve 
feet long at bottom, which 
gives four feet slope, with 
slats on the inside for the 
sheep to walk out of the vat 
into the diripping- floor, six 
inches wide at the bottom on 
the inside, sixteen inches wide 
on top, four feet and a half 
in depth. Three and a half 
feet of dip is plenty to work 
with, but the vat should be 
deep enough to allow one foot 
above the dip to catch the 
splashing dip caused by the 
sheep struggling while in the 
vat. There should be two cross bars across the vat, 
at equal distances, dividing it into three equal parts 
at the level of the dip. At each division should be 
a good trusty man. His duties I give below. The 
vat is set in the ground tw^o feet and a half leaving 




DIPS AND DIPPING. 277 

two feet above tlie grouud. It the ground is cuuveuieutly 
located to Jay an escape pipe to tlie bottom of tlio vat it 
would be a great convenience for cleaning out the vat after 
dipping. This apparatus requires to be located where water 
is plenty. Figure "2 2" are the boilers, which are one od 
each side about six feet from the vat. They are made of 
one and a half inch lumber for sides. I bought fourteen foot 
plaulcs, sawed them in two in the middle and then cut a cir- 
cle on each end, then took sheet iron thirty inches wide and 
eight feet long and nailed it solid to the plank, which makes the 
bottom of the boiler. Across the top nail three pieces of 1x4 
lumber, at equal distances, to keep it from spreading. These 
boilers shciuld be set on a furnace built up two feet from the 
ground with brick or stone. The space between the two sides 
of the furnace should be eight inches narrower than theboiler, 
giving four inches on each side for the boiler to rest on. The 
furnace should be open at each end and a flue made of 
sheet iron seven feet long, and one made to fit either end of 
the furnace, so that it can be easily changed from one end to 
the other to correspond with the direction of thQ wind. This 
flue being seven feet high will conduct the smoke out of the 
way of men and sheep. Fig. "7 7" is a pipe running from boil- 
ers to vat to conduct the dip from boilers into the vat. One 
end of the pipe should be set into the side of the boiler even 
with tlie bottom; the other end let in the side of the vat. by 
means of a notch cut two inches deep. The pipe should be 
just even with the inside of the vat so as to be out of the 
way of the men and sheep. The bottom of the boiler being 
just the same height as the top of the vat, the two-inch notch 
cut in the vat will give fall enough for the pipe to empty the 
boiler. There can be a faucet put in the pipe next the boiler 
or anyAvhere between the boiler and vat, to turn on and shut 
off the dip. Fig. "3 3" is the dipping floor which is sixteen 
feet square, made of flooring well braced underneath with 
joists, and set up on a foundation high enough for the bottom 
of the dripper to rest on the vat. The foundation around 
the outside of the dripper should be built about three inches 
higher than the supports under the center^ so as to spring 
the floor enough to make the dip run toward the center, 
with a strip across the two corners next to the vat. to con- 
duct the drippings from the sheep into the vat. This drip- 



278 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



ping floor should be inclosed hy fence. Fig. "5" is a panel 
fence fourteen feet long placed across the center of the drip- 
ping floor. Two of the bottom boards of the fence of the drip- 
per on the side next to the vat should be cut out the width 
of the vat, and a small gate (fig. 6) fastened to the division 
panel so that it can be swung to either side of the vat, that 
when one part of the dripper is filled with sheep this gate 
can be swung around, closing the pen that the sheep are in 
and leaving the other side open for the sheep to go in. By 




HERDWICK RAM. 

the time this last half of the dripper is filled with sheep 
the first lot will be ready to go out, and continue in like man- 
ner until dripping is finished. Fig. "4 4" are gates to let 
the sheep out of the dripper. Fig. "8" is the yard for the 
sheep before the dipping is commenced. It should be 
built so as to make a small, three-cornered pen (fig. 9) next 
to the vat, large enough to hold fifty or seventy-five sheep 
which would be handy to the vat and easy to catch. This 
yard should be made penitentiary tight and strong so that 
it is impossible for any sheep to escape undipped. Should a 
single sheep get out and get with those already dipped, 
unnoticed, that had a single living female acarus on it, it 
would in a short time infect the whole flock; hence the im- 
portance of thoroughness from beginning to end. Now, 
with the above arrangements and the dip hot, you are ready 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 279 

for work. If desired to be rim to the full capacity, which is 
about one thousand sheep per day, six good, strong men will 
be needed, one to attend the fire and foresee the work and 
see that every man does his duty. This overseer should be 
the owner of the sheep or the one most interested. If the 
sheep are very scabby two men should be stationed in the 
sheep pen with a currycomb or stiff brush to thoroughly 
scratch and break up every scabby patch on the sheep, 
then put it in the vat head first. Now, the man who stands 
at the first division of the vat takes charge of the sheep 
and thoroughly rubs all the scabby spots, and moves it easily 
up and down in the dip in order that the dip can penetrate 
all wrinkles and foldsi. This man should occupy fully one 
minute with each sheep, then pass it under the crossbar to 
the next man who handles it in the same manner and the 
same length of time, then passes it to the third man 
w^ho does likewise. There is room for two sheep in each 
department of the vat at the same time, and one man can at- 
tend two nearly as well as one. It will be found very impor- 
tant to have those crossbars in the vat, or the sheep will 
all rush to the other end of the vat and will climb on each 
other, and it would be very hard for the men to hold them 
back and thoroughly soak them. If only dipping for a 
preventive for ticks or lice, one man in the sheep pen will 
put them in the vat fast enough; also one man can attend 
them along the vat and one dipping will be sufl3cient, but for 
scab it requires two dippings from eight to ten days apart. 
If these directions are carried out I am positive it will cure 
the worst case of scab, as I have cured thousands for myself 
and neighbors in precisely the same manner as here de- 
scribed. This apparatus, if well taken care of, will last for 
years and would serve a number of flockmasters. If the 
flock is small this apparatus can be built on a smaller scale, 
or larger to suit the number of sheep that are to be dipped. 

A HAND DIPPING TANK. 

After an exciting contest for the one-hundred-dollar ster- 
ling silver cup offered, some months ago, by Mr. Cooper for 
the best farm dipping-plant, the prize was won by Mr. W. B. 
Vestal, of Plainfield, Ind. The following are the plans and- 
specifications given by Mr. Vestal: 



280 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



We have a dipping oiittit which I made and which any 
farmer can make at small cost, and it answers the purpose. 
Two men, one on each side of the vat and our little nine- 
year-old Willie to keep the sheep massed in the chute, will 
handle them at the rate of about one sheep every four or 
five minutes, and that will allow the sheep to remain in the 



-t--5 



1 1 1 d 




J 

3 




ra"' 



\i.i 



dip two minutes, "by the watch," and should not be 
guessed at. 

To make the dipping-vat use 2x4 stuff; cut eight pieces 
4 feet 2 inches long, and four pieces 20 inches long, and 
frame by halving together, as'shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Now 
take the four frames and set them on a level floor, and nail 
temporary strip on the outside to keep them in position. Use 



DIPS AND DIPPING. 281 

first-class flooring for sides aud cuds; paint tongues and 
groove as you put them on; commence at the bottom, grooved 
side down (plain the groove ofl; the first boards), and build 
up, letting the ends extend past the posts at each end so 
that they may be sawed off afterwards to insure a good joint 
at the corners. The bottom should be l%xG inches, with the 
edges beveled to correspond with the flare of the sides. 
Draw down with % bolts and nail the side planlis to the edge 
of bottom*^ board, and you w^ill have a water-tight joint. 
Now after sawing the side planlis flush with the outside of 
end posts, seal up ends on outside of posts. Paint the inside 
thoroughly, and you will have a water-tight box. You can 
nail quarter-round in the corners '" necessary, but ours has 
none, and does not leak, and has been in use for three years. 
I like the dipping-vat 8 feet long, so as to allow an incline 
for sheep to wallv out on. They will climb out with little 
assistance if so arranged. We liave a small tackle hung 
near the exit end of the vat, so that in handling very heavy 
sheep w^e have a saddle girth, with ring on each end, which 
we put under the sheep behind the forelegs; hook the tackle 
into the rings, and one man will easily lift a 300-pound sheep; 
but we seldom use the tackle, as the sheep naturally walk 
out with little assistance (and 300-poimd sheep are very 
scarce with us; we have not succeeded in raising many of 
that kind). We let the vat into the ground 2 feet, so the top 
stands 2 feet above the surface. Bore an inch hole in bottom 
to drain off liquid when done (1 inch, so that it may be 
stopped with a corn cob); bury an old box or barrel a short 
distance from the vat, and make a drain from the hole in 
vat to it, and there will be no danger of chickens or other 
stock drinking it. 

In Fig. S I have tried to give an inside view of the vat, 
and in Fig. 4 a side elevation before being let into the ground 
or floor. From the exit end of the vat extends the draining- 
table, which should be about 4 feet wide and o<f any desired 
length, with the outer end elevated so as to drain back imu 
the vat with a strainer to catch any filth that might accumu- 
late on the table. 

I will endeavor to illustrate in Figs. 5 and 6 how to build 
the draining-table. Use for sills 2x6 inch at intervals of 2 
feet to nail the flooi- to. Say you make the first section 14 



282 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP, 



feet; you can let the next lap on the first and extend as far 
as you desire. Shape the sills as shown in Fig. 5, and regu- 
late the pitch by the length of the legs as shown in Fig. (3. 
Set the sills in line, nail temporary strips on ends to hold 
in position and proceed to floor, taking care to paint well 
the tongues and grooves, and when done give two good coats 
of paint to prevent shrinking and swelling. The legs may 
extend upAvard for post to nail planks to prevent the sheep 




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jumping off.. A small gate or bar at the end to let them out 
when they cease to drip completes the drainiug-table. Fig. 
7 show^s draining surface of the table. We find 14 feet of 
draining-table is sufficient for our use. We do not consider 
it any great job to dip our little flock of 100 to 150 sheep. 

SHEARING. 

This harvesting of the wool crop, as it may be termed, 
is one of the important parts of the shepherd's industry. 
It is really his harvest time, and it goes very naturally 
that in the advance of mechanical methods, the machine now 




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284 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

in use for gathering tliis liarvest, is made on precisely the 
same principle as the mower and the harvester. That is, 
that the reciprocating cutting blade, is of the same form 
and has the same action as those machines. It is somewhat 
of a reproach to the enterprise of American shepherds, that 
although a machine for sheardng on this principle was in- 
vented and made over twenty years ago, when the author 
used it, and probably sheared the first sheep by machine, 
in this or any other country, it has been in long use in 
Australia, and is onl^^ recently in use on our American sheep 
ranches. But it has come, and come to stay, and as but little 
power is needed to run it, and it does the work quickly and 
with perfect safety to the sheep, it may be profitably used 
even on comparatively small sheep farms. This same ma- 
chine has been in use for clipping horses, and even in the 
barber shops of our large cities, while it has been neglected 
until now by our sheep men. The now" perfected machine 
will be a considerable saving of expense, and unquestiona- 
bly will be utilized much in the same way as the peripatetic 
thrashing machine is, that is, carried from farm to farm to 
do the work where it will not be profitable to keep the outfit 
especially for one's own use. 

The method of shearing on a large sheep ranch is shown 
in detail at fig. 34. The cost of this special operation is about 
three cents per head for the shearing only. The work done 
includes the shearing, tagging, rolling the fleece, and pack- 
ing them into sacks, when they are weighed and ready for 
shipment. The sheep in this case are sheared unwashed, 
and on the whole this plan, which is the same as that adopt- 
ed on the great sheep runs in Australia, is the most economi- 
cal. The picture sufficiently explains the whole business, 
from the penning of the sheep to the sacking of the wool for 
shipment. 

SHEARING Bl HAND. 

The beginner will be more interested in this method of 
hand shearing as it is best adapted foa* small flocks. The 
sheep are penned in any convenient way near the shearing 
floor, which— by the way — must be kept clean by sweeping 
up the refuse, the tags being gathered by a boy along with 
the sweepings, and afterwards hand-washed. The sheep is 



286 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

first set up on its rump, when the shearer cuts the wool 
clown the belly to the sides, around the throat, and to the 
neck. The sheep is then quietly held on its side, and the 
wool loosened to the back bone and a little over it, as seen 
where the stooping shearer is at work. The sheep is then 




Fig. 33.— Hand Shearing. 

turned over, and the fleece cut on the other side. In this 
sort of shearing- one must carefully avoid under cutting, 
that is, cutting the wool above the skin by taking too deep 
a cut, or holding the shears with the points too high. This 
either leaves ridges in the wool left on the sheep, or double 
cuts it, making a waste. 

A convenient tagging bench is shoMm at figure 35. This 
is used to hold the sheep while the tag locks are removed. 
The sheep is then passed over to the shearing bench on which 
it lies more comfortably and easy, and is consequently less 



SHEARING. 



2S7 



restless than on a flat floor. It is also more under the con- 
trol of the s'hearer, who by slipping a strap over the neck 

holds the sheep better and 
without struggling, as it may 
otherwise. When the fleeces 
are removed from the sheep 
tliey are folded by turning 
over the sides and rolling thorn 
into a compact bundle (fig. 37) 
which is tied at each end 
with soft wool twine. They are 
then ready for storing or for 

selling. If stored they should 
Fig. 35.-Tagging Bench. ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ j^ ^^^ ^j^.y ^ ^^^^^^^^ 

or they will have a harsh feeling w^hen the buyer comes 
araund, o.r they are sent for sale. A shaded shed is a good 
place to keep them in, in which they will not dry out too 
much. A moderate degree of dampness is requisite to pre- 
serve the softness of the wool, and its elasticity and strength 
of fiber. It has been found, that by over dryness, wool will 





Fig. 36.— Shearing Bench. 

lose one-fourth of its strength, just as a sliver of elastic wood 
will become hard and brittle by overdrying. The moisture 
natural to the wool is to be preserved while it is in storage. 

A few words might be said just here in regard to a rep- 
rehensible practice of shearing, the intention of which is to 
disguise the form of the sheep and give to it false and de- 
ceptive appearance by wliich judges at tfie exbibitloins may be 
induced to estimate the animals so disguij^ed above their real 
character. It consists in leaving the fleece, at the shearing 



288 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



longer in some parts of the body than in others, so as 
to increase the value of special points of excellence in the 
form, as well as to add to the length of the staple. This 
nefarious trick is common in the English exhibitions, and is 
winked at by the judges, so that the most skillful adept in 
this distortion of the form secures the prizes and leaves 
the honest exhibitor in. an undeserved low position. It has 
been known too that exhibitors have descended to the low 
trick of washing their show sheep, and coloring the fleece 
with yellow ocher and oil, so as to give a false appearance 




Fig. 37.— Tying Fleeces. 

and feel to the wool. It is well that judges at exhibitions 
should be cautious to inspect the stock and be about in good 
season, and at times w^hen these tricks may be practiced 
by the shepherds in charge of the sheep in the various pens. 
And while this deception may not be frequently practiced, 
yet it is well that all concerned should be on the lookout 
for it, and insist on the disqualification of the animals so 
distorted, and levy a substautial fine on the delinquents. 
This is simply a matter of justice to all honest exhibitors. 
The author is free to say, and happy to testify, that this 
practice is by no means common at our exhibitions, but still ^ 



SORTING WOOL. 289 

it has been known to have been effective in misleading 
judges who have been careless in giving thorough examina- 
tion to the sheep in the pens. At the same time exhibitors 
should take all honest means to put their sheep in the best 
condition for the examination by the judges; for it some- 
times hr.ppens that the best may lose position for want of 
being duly prepared for the competition. 

SORTING WOOL. 

There are several qualities of wool in a sheep's fleece. Tlie 
character of the fiber varies the least in the Merino breeds, 
more in the coarse wools, but most in the common natives. 
But in all there is a difference. This is best seen in the 
illustration, fig. 38, of what is known as a skirted fleece. 
This is an Australian fleece, and it is to this method of sort- 
ing^ the wool of a fleece that our tariff is applied. The skirted 



i^\^\ ski^'^a [^1^ 



{''3 Ui--'-^'--{z\ i) 



Fig. 38.— a Skirted Fleece. 
1, Firsts, neck and skirts; 2, Second pieces ; 3, Third pieces; 4, Stained 
wool; 5, Belly wool; 6, Broken wool; 7, Skirted wool. 

wool being the best part of the fleece, is subject to the 
highest import duty, on account of the higher value of it. 
The fleece being laid on the wool-sorter's table, this expert 
individual tears it to pieces, separating the various qualities, 
as if by instinct, into the different grades. These are men- 
tioned under the engraving. 

This example is an object lesson to the breeder whose 
ambition and business it is to improve his flock. For it is 
evident, the more the fleece may contain of the No. 7 



290 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

wool, as it is here numbered, the higher the value of it will 
be. AJid the more of the coarser wool in the fleece the less its 
value, and of course of the sheep, as well as of its wool. 
The Merino sheep, in all its several varieties, is an interest- 
ing example of the skill of the breeders by which these sheep 
are clothed from the tip of the nose to the hoofs, with valua- 
ble wool. There is thus a great difference between a pure 
Merino and a grade. But by breeding up of the flock by the 
use of the best selected sheep, chosen for this high grade of 
fleece, it is evident that the special wool grower may in a 
few years so grade up his flock as to largely increase the 
value of it by the better wool grown. It will be a useful 
study for the intelligent shepherd to exaanine carefully this 
diagram of the skirted fleece, and apply the hints it will 
afford to his culture of his flock. 

PULLED WOOL. 

A large quantity of what is known as pulled wool is al- 
ways on the marliet. This is taken from the skins of 
slaughtered sheep, and— sad to say— from the thousands of 
sheep that are lost every year by the neglect of their owners. 
The wool is loosened by the application to the back of the 
skin of thin lime paste. This is one of the examples of the 
detrimental effect of lime to the skin of a living animal, as 
w^ell as its usefulness in this special instance. The wool is 
also loosened from the skins by laying them w^hen wet in 
heaps one on another. The pelts of course sweat and 
partly decompose as to the epidermis, which as has been 
explained previously in this chapter, is the part in which 
the wool fibers are rooted. The sweating of the skins in this 
process causes the w^ool to loosen, so that it may be easily 
removed, without seriously affecting the value of it. Thus 
the market value of pulled wool may vary considerably with 
the skillfulness or otherwise of this process of separation. 
The w^ool of a sheep, dead of any disease, is materially re- 
duced in value, and the more so as the kind of disease may 
happen to be. Sheep dying of any contagious disease, such 
as anthrax especially, is frequently the cause of the infection- 
of the handlers of the skins or wool. The almost invariably 
wool-sorter's disease, as it is called, is. precisely this same 
disease of which the sheep died, and is one of the most 



CARE OF THE SHEARED SHEEP. 291 

dreadful of all causes of death. It is accompanied by blood 
poisoning, of which the results are most painful boils and 
carbuncles appearing all over the body, and which produce 
such severe shock to the sufferer, that death is almost cer- 
tain. Recovery is rare, and the sufferings of the unfortunate 
victim of the ignorant or thoughtless owner of the dead 
sheep, are so severe as to be a caution to all concerned, never 
to touch a sheep dead of this disease except with a long pole, 
as the saying is, to turn it into a deep hole dug on the spot 
where it is buried safely. But all contact of the hands with 
the carcass is to be most carefully avoided. 

CAKE OF THE SHEARED SHEEP. 

As our shearing time occurs in a favorable season of the 
year, but little need be said as to the care of the newly-shorn 
flock. Necessarily some thought is to be given to this, in the 
way of protection against unfavorable weather. Warm rain 
is not hurtful, but rather the opposite. Cold rain is to be 
avoided, and if it happens, the sheep should be sheltered 
for a short time until they have become used to their 
thin Summer clothing. The English shepherds smear the 
sheep with some kind of cheap grease, mostly the waste but- 
ter purchased at a low price from the dealers. We might 
say with some sort of truth that there is an abundant supply 
of this article to be procured here, as well as in other coun- 
tries, and if such waste stuff might be thought desirable to 
shed the rain from the bared sheep, it would not cost much 
to procure and use it. Cuts that have been made should be 
treated with some antiseptic ointment, or tar, either will be 
advisable, as a protection against the flies, which might 
blow the sheep and cause serious trouble. The application 
will tend to the quick healing of any wounds that may 
have been given in the shearing. 



CHAPTER VII. 

MINOR BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

THE HERDWICK 

is a hardy, active, resolute and self-lielpful race of sheep, 
pure bred, highly prized and most common in the beautiful 
lake and hill country of Cumberland and Westmoreland 
counties where tradition says they were first introduced by 
the escape of some forty sheep from the wreck of Spanish 
galleons on the Cumberland coast in 1588, since which period 
they have been assiduously cultivated by the northern hill 
farmers. The characteristics of the breed are well outlined 
by Mr. Jas. Bowstead, a very competent authority, as fol- 
lows: "The essential points of a Herdwick are a heavy fleece 
of fairly strong wool disposed to be hairy on the top of the 
shoulder, growing well down to the knees and hocks, pole 
and belly well covered, a broad, bushy tail, and a well de- 
fined topping broad head, nose arched, or Roman, nostrils 
and mouth Avide, teeth broad and short, jaws deep, showing 
strength of constitution and determination, eye prominent 
and lively, and in the male, defiant; ears white, fine, erect 
and always moving, as has been said like a butterfly's wing. 
The color or markings of the face and legs is very imiportant. 
There should be no spots or speckles, nor any token of 
brown, as these are considered sure tokens of a cross. When 
the lambs are born their legs and heads should be perfectly 
black, with the exception of a little white on the tips of the 
ears, and perhaps a few white hairs round the feet. These 
white hairs gradually increase, so that at six months old, 
one-third or one-half the ear will be hoar-frosted, and there 
will be distinct bands of the same round the feet, shading 
off to the black of the leg, and by this time also about 
an inch of the muzzle will have become frosted too. This 
change of color goes on until some, at the age of three years, 
are perfectly white, while others remain a kind of steel 



294 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

gray. Horns in the ram are desirable, but not essential, 
and undoubtedly add much to the- appearance, but other- 
wise are not much valued. White hoofi are much preferred. 
***** There are many yeomen in the dales of Cum- 
berland and Westmoreland whose flocks have been handed 
down from father to son for generations without a blot or 
stain on their pedigrees, and he would be a degenerate son 
who would dare to try a cross." The Herdwick, like most 
of the mountain sheep, is distinctively a mutton sheep, 
much prized for the fine flavor of its flesh. 

THE RYELAND SHEEP. 

The old Ryeland was well scattered over StafCordshire, 
Shropshire, Monmouthshire, Herefordshire and Gloucester- 
shire a century and more ago, and as early as 1800 num- 
bered 500,000 in Herefordshire alone, but for some reason 
fell into disfavor and decline almost to the point of extinc- 
tion. It was medium sized, Vl ming from 12 to 15 lbs. 
to the quarter in the wether, and 10 to 12 lbs. in the ewe, 
was white-faced and polled, with small clean legs, light 
bone, compact, round body, a 2 lb. fleece of very fine wool, 
had great powers of endurance, and so much favored the 
Merino in appearance, character and habit, as to suggest 
a possible foreign origin. 

THE NEW RYELAND, 

while holding some of the better characteristics of its less 
showy and less pretentious ancestor, has greater size, sym- 
meti-y and weight of fleece, lambs under 12 months yielding 
as high as 18 lbs. per quarter, and yearlings 20 to 24 lbs. to 
the quarter, the fleece, though not so fine as in the older breed, 
ranging from 6 to 8 lbs. The New Ryeland, which doubtless 
owes much of its fine size and style to early Leicester 
crosses, is still hornless and white-faced, with short, close, 
even wool, and is clearly a distinct breed, quite unlike any 
other. It fattens with remarkable facility, matures quickly, 
yields an excellent quality of fiesh and is fast coming into 
favor for its inherent value, as a wool and mutton sheep, 
and especially for crossing on other breeds. Mr. Frank 
Shepherd, who has had a life-long association with the breed, 
says: "The Ryeland is one of the oldest of British breeds of 
sheep, and to my mind is one of the best all-round breeds 




EYELAND RAM. 





LONK RAM 



296 ■ THE DOMESTIC SEtEEf*. 

we have, producing mutton and wool of the finest quality, 
with great constitution, invaluable for crossing purposes. 
It is a common saying in Hereford market that 'no sheep v^^ill 
get fat lambs like a Ryeland ram.' The Ryeland of to-day 
is a much heavier sheep than was the case thirty or forty 
years ago and arrives earlier at maturity— compact in form, 
straight back, sides and underline, on short, well-set, white 
legs, a white face, thick scrag, and head well covered with 
wool. No better wool is grown on any sheep. As a hardy, 
farmer's rent-paying sheep, I have no hesitation in giving 
the preference to the Ryeland." Such is a brief outline 
of the history and characteristics of a breed of sheep des- 
tined to hold a conspicuous place in the world's future sheep 
farming. 

Among the minor English breeds, which have in recent 
years been honored with a class at the Royal and other 
shows, is 

THE LONK, 

of which the following mention is made by Mr. Dixon in the 
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal: "The hill ranges of 
Yorl^;shire and Lancashire are believed to be the earliest home 
of the Lonks. We find them extending north from Clitheroe, 
over the forest of Bowland tow^ards Lancaster, east of Colne 
and Skipton as far as Keighley and Ben Rhydding, and 
south along the 'back-bone of England' by Pendle Hill, Burn- 
ley, Todmorden and Bacup, almost to Blackstone Edge. The 
Penistone breed, a shorter and thicker description of Lonk, 
there hold the hills. Derbyshire also has Lonks on most of 
its hills and peaks, and its flockmasters often go over to 
report progress at the Craven Show." Youatt undoubtedly 
refers to the Lonks in the following note: "In the West Rid- 
ing of Yorkshire and on the border of Lancashire, a breed of 
short-wooled sheep has existed from time immemorial. They 
are horned, with mottled faces and legs; some of them, how- 
ever, are white-faced. It has been crossed more toward the 
south of the Riding with the Cheviot and Leicester, both of 
which have improved, it. Towards the north it has been 
oftener crossed with the Heath sheep, and then the legs and 
faces are black, gray or spotted." Prof. Wrightson 
says of the breed: "The Lonks are a distinct breed, and are 
most valued on low-lying, damp and mossy land. They are 



398 TliE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

like the Heath sheeiD, blaick and white faced, horned in 
both sexes, carrying a superior fleece of fine, moderately long- 
wool, which is closer in texture, more springy and elastic 
than the wool of the Scotch Black-faces. The breed is 
peculiar for resisting the effects of a damp soil. The Lonk is 
a, larger, thicker made, and better wooled she-ep than the 
Scotch Black-faced, and was well represented at the show of 
the Royal at Chester in 1893." 

THE ROSCOMMON 

of to-day is a comparatively recent and very great improve- 
ment on the old, large, raw-boned, ungainly native sheep of 
Counaught, the chief sheep raising province of Ireland. The 
earliest modification of the ugly old Connaughters, both in 
form and fleece, was effected by Leicester rams skillfully 
mated with native ewes by the most intelligent breeders 
of Roscommon County. Later improvement came by careful 
selection, resulting in a stately,, massive sheep of command- 
ing presence, noble, if not handsoime. Yearling grass fed 
wethers yield 25 and 30 lbs. and older ewes from 30 to 40 
lbs. to the quarter of superior mutton. Early maturity, too, 
seems characteristic of these sheep which carry 7 to 10 
lb. fleeces of soft, pliable, lustrous long staple wool. Not 
alone to favoring crosses and selection are due the stately 
and massive form and rich fleece of the modern Roscommon. 
Environments — salt sea breezes, with their favoring humidity, 
the rich herbage and browse, the soils, geology and topog- 
raphy of Connaught— have had much to do with the develop- 
ment of this breed of sheep into its noble pTOportions. The 
Roscommon is rather large for the present English mutton 
fashion, but fashion may change to suit the noble Roscom- 
mon, or- the Roscomm'on may change to suit the fashion. 
This is an age of marvels in sheep evolution and changes 
follow each other thick and fast. 

THE RADNOR 

is a native of Radnor, Merioneth, Montgomery and Breck- 
nock Counties, Wales, and one of the old mountain breeds, 
originally very small, but now bred up to medium size and 
good form through Leicester and Shropshire crosses, until 
at maturity (three or four years old) the well bred and well 
fed wether turns a twelve to fifteen lb, quarter and the ewe 



300 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

a nine to twelve lb. dressed quarter. The ewes are prolific, 
good milkers and mothers and are much sought after by 
feeders in the near English counties for raising mutton 
lambs. Like all the Welsh sheep of the mountains, the Rod- 
uor, though not a ready feeder, is a producer of high quality 
mutton. The old native Radnor carried a very large heavily 
wooled tail and was hairy at breach and breast, but his mod- 
ern descendeut carries a 4 or 5 lb. fleece of fine quality 
wool, horns in the ram, ewes polled, but sometimes with rudi- 
mental horns, ablack face,varyingtotan,gray and even white, 
and a light fore-quarter, and is a very hardy, active, self- 
reliant sheep, and though favored with recognition at some 
of 'the great shows, is a provincialist, best suited to his 
bleak native habitat and never likely to take a promineut 
place in British husbandrj-. 

THE SHEEP OF NORTH WALES 

are characterized by Mr. Morgan Evans as "principally 
w^hite-faced, though some have rusty brown, others speckled 
and others gray faces. The males are horned, the ewes gen- 
erally hornless, though sometimes with very short horns and 
occasionally with horns equal in size to those of the ram. 
The head is small and carried well up, the neck long, poll 
high, shoulders low, chest narrow, girth small, ribs flat, 
rump high and tail long. Average weight of ewes 7 lbs. per 
quarter. Three year old wethers, 9 to 10 lbs. per quarter, 
and the mutton famous for its delicacy. The average clip 
of wool is about 5 lbs. per fleece of fine quality, but in some 
districts it is mixed with long hairs about the neck and 
back." All attempts at improvement of these little mountain 
sheep* have ended in failure. They are the natural product 
of the bleak, semi-barren Welsh hills, the heather, a rigorous 
winter climate and generally hard conditions, modified by 
the salt sea winds, and in their best estate, are likely, though 
diminutive in size, to long remain the unapproachable, 
superlative mutton sheep of the hill country. 

THE EXMOOR, 

like the Dartmoor, are native to the North Devon and neigh- 
boring mountains, and in their original estate bore noticeable 
resemblance to the Dorsets, of which they were near neigh- 
bors. They were naturally wild and nomadic, carried light 



wmmiiimiiiiiiiirm i 'mw 'iw 




303 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

fleeces of coarse wool, were horned in both sexes, and like 
most of the mountain breeds that ranged in the heather 
and subsisted on browse and the scanty herbage of. the 
higher moorlands yielded fine flavored mutton. The Ex- 
moor, which has been greatly improved in the last half cen- 
tury by Leicester crosses, is relatively, a medium sized, white 
faced, white wooled, white legged and very hardy sheep, 
with prettily turned horns, long round barrels, broad loins, 
short legs, drooping shoulders, rather faulty neck and mod- 
erate shoulder girth, and carries a fleece of about five lbs. 
of wool. Where well bred and fed, the mature Exmoor 
dresses from ten to eighteen lbs. to the quarter. This breed 
of sheep, like the Dorset, matures early and the ewe is a 
prolific lamb bearer, very frequently presenting twins and 
triplets. The breed is noteworthy, too, for its unusual _ 
longevity, and in the quality of its mutton has few equals. 

THE LIMESTOJsE OR CRAG SHEEP, 

which have found ready recognition and a good representa- 
tion at the Eoyal and other shows, are mainly confined to the 
rugged motorlands of West Yorkshire and East Lancashire 
where they are near neighbors of the Lonks. Youatt speaks 
of them in this wise: "Towards the borders of Westnioreland 
the Limestone breed of sheep are found. They are natives 
of that part of the country and singularly confined to it. 
It is a horned breed, with white face and legs, depasturing 
on a rocky limestone land." Prof. Wrightson describes them 
as follows: "Both sexes horned, face and legs white, wool 
firm, intermediate in length, and inclining to the character 
of short rather than long wool. Wethers 18 to 22 lbs. per 
quarter at twenty months old. Females very prolific. Out 
of fifty-four ewes in a given flock, thirteen produced triplets, 
and the entire fifty-four brought up ninety-six lambs to 
weaning time." The Crag sheep, he says, are "well adapted 
for the dry and high lying moors of the mountain limestone 
and are able to subsist almost without water." 

THE DEVON LONGWOOL, 

a native of Devonshire, comes down throngh the centuries 
from the old Bampton, a large, swarthy, strong boned, heav- 
ily fleeced, white faced and hornless breed of sheep, that 
got their great size and bone from the rich Bampton pas- 




I < 



304 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

itires, ages before some of the present popular breeds of Brit- 
ish sheep were born. The Devon Longwool of to-day is a 
reproduction of the stalwart old breed under the refining 
influence of Leicester and Lincoln blood, numerous crosses 
of which are apparent in its present bodily symmetry, fine 
fleece and well established type. It has found favor at the 
Royal and other leading shows and is unquestionably a most 
valuable member of the long-wool tribes. 

THE DARTMOOR 

of the present time, as the cut shows, is a long-wool sheep 
of large size, good form, long, heavy fleece and general char- 
acter much on the order of the Cotswold and Lincoln, and 
quite unlike the raw-boned, angular and ugly native sheep 
of the mountains described by Youatt and other early writers. 
He is strong boned, white faced, white legged and horn- 
less, with long white staple, is very hardy and as now 
constituted, the result of a cross of the Leicester and Lin- 
coln on the native Dartmoor mountain sheep. The Dartmoor 
has been received with much favor at the Royal show and is 
really one of the valuable long-wool breeds of England. 

THE GLAMORGANSHIRE SHEEP, 

0£ South Wales, are small, with very little claim to sym- 
metry of form or inviting features. They are white faced, 
white legged, generally hornless and carry a fairly dense 
fleece of shoTt wool, not altogether free from hair, occasional 
tan colored legs are noted among them and are considered 
tokens of constitutional vigor. The mature fat wether 
dresses thirty to forty lbs., and the ewe from twenty to 
thirty lbs., or about six or seven lbs. per quarter. Like 
other tribes of Welsh sheep, they yield superb mutton, and 
so far, have not shown marked improvement when crossed 
with larger breeds from other parts of the kingdom. 

THE CLUN FOREST SHEEP 

are natives of the Clun Forest and Radnor Forest hills on 
the border between Wales and Shropshire, and were once a 
white faced, light fleeced sheep, but Shropshire and Ry eland 
crosses have improved them in size, form and fleece. The 
face colorings ranges from white to black with intermediate 
shadings of fawn, gray, brown or mottled. Wool and mutton 
of excellent quality, sheep and lambs mature early, general 
style good, but fixedness of type still wanting. A valuable 
sheep with more than average possibilities. 



OHAPTEE VIII. 

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. - THEHi PREVENTION AND 
TREATMENT. 

Prevention is better than cure. The modern methods and 
practice of medicine, both of the physician and the veterinary, 
are to prevent diseases first as far as possible, and under the care- 
ful and skillful use of every hygienic precaution, this system has 
had the good result of lessening the death rate of the cities to 
nearly one-half of the proportion of only a iew years ago. The en- 
forced cleanliness, the ample supply of pure water, the better ven- 
tilation of dwellings, the greater personal cleanliness of individuals, 
due to the copious water service of towns and cities, with 
the assistance of popular education in this respect, have all had 
this excellent result. So far this better manner of life has not 
been adopted in regard to our domestic animals, each owner 
of which is free to do, or to neglect to do, those things which are 
requisite for the welfare of his stock. But this matter must soon 
he brought under the same rule of action bj^ the farmer, the shep- 
herd, the dairyman, the horse owner, and all others interested in 
the pursuit of that branch of agriculture, which consists of the 
rearing and feeding of our domestic animals. 

Fortunately the general study of the hj^giene of animal life, 
and the enforcement of ordinary economj^ have had the result 
of bringing this matter before the attention of our legislatures, 
and special hj-gienic laws have been made and enforced through 
which this saving of life, and money as well, have been effected. 
Laws for the destruction of contagious diseases both of animals and 
the common farm crops, by the destruction of the contagious germs 
to which they are due, are now beginning to bear fruit; and those 
deadly diseases by which flocks and herds have been decimated, 
and uncounted millions of dollars have been wasted, are yearly 
getting under control through the enforced precautions by Avhich 
contagion and infection are avoided. The scab disease of sheep, 
for instance, by virtue of such laws rigorously enforced, no longer 
exists to the dread of the shepherd, but has already been brought 
under control in some countries, and it is the paramount dutv of 
American shepherds to see that the same regulations should be 
made and enforced here, so that sheep may not be infected in 
their transport by rail from place to place, and the buyer of 
healthy animals may have either the assurance of safety, or satis- 
factory means of recompense for losses sustained through tbe neg- 
lect or carelessness of those who are the causes of loss in this way. 



306 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

There is no good reason why in the course of two years at 
least every contagious and infectious disease of sheep might not be 
put an end to, and safety for the future insured. This would put 
millions of dollars into the pockets of shepherds and sheep breed- 
ers, and it is as easy to be done as that the yellow fever or the 
deadly cholera may be prevented from gaining entrance through 
our seaports. So far as may be required for this end, all con- 
cerned in saving our flocks from decimation should waste no 
time in calling for adequate legislation, and at the same time 
themselves practice every necessary precaution in the management 
of their own flocks. Next to this all concerned should study those 
most effective rules by which diseases, due to neglects of manage- 
ment and to parasites, may be avoided by the general destruction 
of these deadly enemies of the flocks. One kind of intestinal 
worms, for instance, is responsible for more than half the deaths 
of sheep. The fatal fluke worm has at times destroyed one-tenth of 
all the sheep in Australia, and thousands are lost here simply by the 
neglect to avoid the use of infected Avater drank by the sheep 
at ponds and sluggish streams, bordered by wet banks, on which 
this parasite is bred in its common host, an abundant snail. So 
with the equally injurious tape worms, which are taken into the 
sheep in their embryo fonns, as they are voided by dogs and other 
carnivorous animals, as wolves and coyotes. There is no reason 
why by a simple method every dog may not be freed from the 
para.sdtes, and rendered innoxious to the flocks. 

And so it goes with other diseases, which — as we shall describe 
them — may be prevented by the drainage of low pasture lands, or 
the avoiding of certain geologically derived soils, the effect of 
which is injurious to the flocks, and others still which are due to 
faults of feeding, and the inadequate nutrition of tlije sheep. 
Others too may be due to irregularities of feeding, or to exposure 
to the severity of the weather, as to heat or cold, or to the want 
of needed dryness or cleanliness in the housing of the flocks, or to 
injurious plants w^hich may easily be eradicated from the pas- 
tures. All these remarks are intended to put the shepherds on 
their guard, and by full information as to these common risks, lead 
to the avoidance of them and insure the safety of the flocks. 

For the fuller information of the reader we shall give every 
name by which the common diseases are known; the common 
ones in use, as well as those best known to science; so that each 
may be easily recognized, and treated with understanding. Atten- 
tion is called to the list of symptoms which indicate the special 
disease, so that every reader may as far as possible recognize the 
ailment by which his sheep may be affected, and thus more intelli- 
gently seek out the means of treatment. A list of remedies will also 
be found, which may be used in accordance with the prescriptions 
given. These will be rated for animals fully grown, and are to be 
decreased in proportion to the age and weight of each one, halt 
for a yearling, and a fourth for one six months old. As very 
young lambs rarely call for treatment except through the dams, 
in such cases the judgment of each reader must be exercised as to 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 307 

the proportion of each case. As some diseases affect only young 
lambs, it is to be understood that the quantities are for them 
specifically, Avhen they only are mentionesj. 

The list of diseases are taken up alphabetically, which will be 
the most convenient an-angement. If the list of symptoms is 
first referred to, the disease indicated will then be found in its 
place, with the needed treatment described. 

Before entering into the list of diseases it may be well to dis- 
cuss that most important of the medical management of the ewes, 
which applies to the birth of lambs. The scientific name of this 
natural function is parturition. 

PARTURITION OF THE SHEEP. 

Ordinarily the ewes give birth to the lambs in the Spring. 
This is the most convenient time of the year in general, but in 
some instances, now, the lambs are desired much earlier, and in- 
deed with the Dorsets, they are expected late in the Fall or early 
in the Winter. As a rule it is most profitable to have the lambs 
early, that is from the New Year on, until the early Spring. This 
is a convenient time, for the lambs are weaned in good season for 
the early fattening of the ewes, expected to be sold, and the lambs 
may be ready for market two months earlier than later ones, 
while they may be made to weigh ten or fifteen pounds more 
without any greater cost of feeding when the usual time of dispos- 
ing of them arrives, towards the end of the season. 

A weak ewe is always in more or less trouble at this time 
than those that have been duly prepared for the occasion by 
good care and feeding. The birth of a lamb is always easy when 
the ewes are strong, and there is ample milk for rearing the 
young things, which are really hardy; and once on their legs and 
having a drink of milk, are then about past all risk if due shelter 
is given them in severe weather. The absence of this shelter is 
a very costly instance of want of thrift on the part of the shep- 
herd. A lamb is a small thing, but as he Avho takes care of his 
cents saves his dollars, so this old true proverb applies to this; 
and every lamb lost is just so much money out of pocket. 

As the time for the appearance of the lambs approaches, 
and this is to be kno^^^l by reference to the record to be kept 
by everj^ shepherd, the most forward ewes should be separated 
into yards with pens attached, and a close watch kept over them. 
The indications of approaching lambing are tiie filling of the udder, 
and later the deeper color and swollen condition of the vulva. 
When these conditions are perceived the ew^es should be brought 
into the enclosures around the pens, and watched if the weather 
is at all severe, and especially if it is raining; for a cold rain will 
kill a new born lamb that mil easily withstand a temperature half 
way to zero, if it is dr>^ 

Sheep are willful and obstinate, and unless controlled in some 
way they cannot help, they will give trouble. So that every pro- 
vision should be made to have things so arranged that they cannot 
help but do precisely what is w^anted of them. It is a rare thing 



308 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

that any help is needed at the birth of the lamb, and quietness, 
and the absence of all disturbances by other sheep, and a watchful 
attention until the lamb is on its feet and trying to get its milk, 
are generally quite sufficient. What the shepherd wants to know 
is that things are going on right, and then to let the sheep and 
the lainb get on in their own way. 

If a lamb is chilled, a hot bath is the best thing for it, and 
then to be wrapped in a flannel around its body. A teaspoonful of 
hot gin and water, a little SAveetened, is the common panacea of 
the Highland shepherds for the restoration of a weak or chilled 
lamb; and it is certainly effective. Even on those exposed moun- 
tain pastures, it is rare that the losses of lambs reach over seven 
per cent, even in the Avonst of seasons, and when the shep- 
herd's hut is almost buried in snow. 

If a ewe refuses to care for her lamb, she should be put into a 
small pen, in which she cannot get away from the lamb's impor- 
tunities, and generally it will be sufficient to hold the lamb to the 
teat and let it get a few mouthfuls of milk, after which it will 
take care of itself, and the ewe will submit to its importunate calls 
for nutriment. This care is more needed when twin lambs are 
dropped, and by due attention the majority of these will be suc- 
cessfully reared in this way without artificial feeding. Otherwise 
it will be wise to have a fresh cow handy, and feed the lambs that 
need it from a nursing bottle. It has been known that more 
than three hundred pairs of twins have been reared in a flock 
of six hundred ewes, through the good care and management of a 
skillful foreman who looked attentively to this part of his 
business. 

If a ewe is weak, there is nothing better for her than a 
drink of warm oatmeal gruel given from a long-necked bottle, if 
she will not drink it without this help. This may be given four 
times a day, and in a large flock a supply of this nourishing food 
should be kept on hand and warm all the time. It will be a 
great help to have the weak ewes culled out before the lambing 
time is due, and by a little extra care to get up their strength by 
good nursing. 

One of the worst things that may happen to a ewe, heavy m 
lamb, is to be chased by dogs. This is to be carefully prevented, 
and the shepherd's dog itself is to be watched at this time lest he 
might be too rough wath some for\A^ard ewe. 

Unnecessary interference with a ewe in labor is unwise. Let 
nature have its wav until it is evident that help is needed, and 
then the careful use of the forceps, or a small hand, may liberate 
the lamb and afford a safe delivery. If the ewe is weak and 
prostrated, a dose of the ordinary cordial used by shepherds will 
act as a useful stimulant, after which some light liquid nutritious 
food will restore the strength. ^ r xi i i. ^-u ^ -4. 

There are occasions of such a presentation of the lamb tnat it 
is impossible to save it, and it may be a question whether the 
lamb or the ewe may be the most desirable to sacrifice. If the 
lamb is likely to be of more value than the ewe, it may be saved 



DISEASES OP SHEEP. 309 

by taking it from the mother by what is known as the Cesarian 
operation. This consiyts of the opening of the ewe and taking 
the lamb from her. This is a serious operation, but it has been 
performed safely, and both ewe and lamb saved. Or if the ewe 
must be sacrificed, and is in a hopeless condition of exhaustion, 
she may be treated Avith chloroform so as to make her insensible, 
and the lamb then extracted and reared by hand, or put on an- 
other ewe. 

This operation is performed in this way. The wool is clipped 
from the right flank, and an incision is made large enough to insert 
the hand previously oiled or greased with carbolated vaseline. Five 
mches is about right. The uterus (the womb) is then brought 
mto view, taking the utmost care to keep the intestines out of 
danger, for it is quite possible to save both ewe and lamb by 
skillful operation. The uterus is then opened, the membranes 
removed and opened, and the lamb taken, cutting the cord and 
tying it to prevent bleeding. The incisions are then closed by 
sutures, using every precaution to sterilize the parts by a spray 
of warm solution of carbolic acid or permanganate of potash. The 
lamb is fed vvith fresh cow's milk, or put to a newly-lambed ewe. 
The ewe is kept quiet and comfortable, and if the operation 
has not been delayed too long, it has an equal chance for recovery. 
Reports of thirty-four cases of this kind have been recorded, in 
which fourteen were successful, both ewe and lamb having been 
saved; in nine the ewe was saved, but the results as to the lamb 
are not given. The ewe alone was saved in five instances, in six 
the ewe died but the lambs were saved, and in only six both ewe 
and lamb died. St. Cyr, a noted veterinarian, sa3^s in his work, 
that this operation is decidedly dangerous for the parent, but 
may be made with success as to the lamb; but the mother may 
often be saved, if the due antiseptic precautions are taken and 
the body is carefully bandaged to support the wounded parts. 
If the mother's life is not the main object, by taking a sufficiently 
early time for the operation, the lamb may be saved in a large 
majority of cases. 

The incision in the flank need not be more than five inches 
in length, and the intestines are to be carefulh^ protected, and 
sprayed hy the antiseptic preparation. The most effective stimu- 
lant for the ewe is a decoction of gentian, of which half a pint may 
be given after the operation is completed. As to other animals, 
especially cows, this operation has been generally successful. 

RETENTION OF THE AFTER-BIRTH. 

This is not at all common in the slieep as it is witli the 
larger animals. Tlie cause of this accident is weakness in the 
ewe, or the spasmodic action of the os-uteri, or passage from 
the uterus. The former is treated by giving stimulants to the 
ewe, such as infusion of laurel berries, with aniseed, infused 
in Avarm M^ater as folloAvs: 

Laurel berries 2 ounces. 

Aniseed 1 " 

Carbonate of soda 2 " 



310 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

Infuse in two quarts of water and give half a pint, repeated 
in six hours. Tiiis lias been found almost universally successful, 
except w^here the latter cause has been in operation. In this 
ease the application of belladonna ointment to the neck of the 
womb, and to give half a dram of the belladonna extract to the 
ewe in some warm gruel, have been found effective. In gen- 
eral this is not anj'^ serious matter, as in time the membranes will 
gradually pass away without any but a temporary inconvenience. 
This inconvenience is generally avoided by due care in the feed- 
ing of the ewes while carrj-ing their lambs. A strong ewe will 
rarely be troubled in this way. 

BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. 

Bleeding or flooding, after the birth of the lamb, is mostly 
due to the rupture of some blood vessel in the separation of 
the membrane from the walls of the womb. The treatment 
called for in this case is the injection of cold water, by means 
of a suitable syringe, into the womb, and a sponge dipped in solu- 
tion of perchloride of iron should be placed in the vagina. At the 
same time half-dram doses of the perchloride should be given by 
the mouth, in solution, at intervals of three hours. It will be a 
help to rub other parts of the body, as the legs and neck, with any 
of the common stimulating liniments to produce a revulsion of the 
circulation to these parts of the body, thus relieving the seat of 
the disorder. This is an infrequent trouble with sheep, and is 
due mostly to some undue muscular exertion of the animal during 
the birth of the lamb. 

INVERSION OF THE WOMB. 

Sometimes after the birth of the lamb the womb, a red bladder- 
like substance, may be seen ejecting from the vulva. This is 
due to some weakness of the ewe by which the attachments of the 
womb are loosened, and through the failure of the passage to 
close, normally, the accident occurs. This disease has been known 
and described from time immemorial. It was mentioned by the 
old Roman veterinarian, Vegetius, who quite wisely— we think— 
recommended the use of an inflated pig's bladder as a passary, 
or compress, to be placed in the vagina. The bladder is inserted 
while collapsed, and is then inflated by blowing into it with a 
quill, when the neck is tied. This accident is quite frequent m the 
ewe, coming next to the cow in regard to it. It is most apt to 
happen through the retention of the after-birth, when the whole 
organ is averted with its contents. If this is the case these must 
be carefully separated at each attachment of the cotyledons, so as 
not to cause bleeding by forcible separation. If the union is not 
easily separated the membranes may be severed near the attach- 
ments, but with great care to avoid bleeding. The uterus is then 
washed with warm water, having a little alum, or extract of bark 
in it. It is then carefully replaced using a probe having a soft 
sponge tied to the end, and covered with a clean linen rag. This 
is dipped in carbolated vaseline, and by it the uterus is gently 



DISEASES OP SHEEP. 311 

replaced. The small bladder is then used as above mentioned. 
The eAve should have immediately a strong dose of whisky or gin, 
to allay muscular or nervous excitement. A small quantity of 
diluted tincture of opium may be injected into the uterus, at the 
same time. Necessarily the ewe should be kept verj^ quiet for a 
time, and not be pei-mitted to run with the flock until recoverj- is 
made. 

If repeated eversion is threatened after this, the application 
of a padded bandage with an opening in the center, or a patch of soft 
leather should be fastened on the part by a suitable bandage, 
placed up over the back on each side of the tail, and under the 
belly, and fastened to a strap around the body. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA. 

This is sometimes a sequel of a difficult birth, especially after 
the use of any of the preceding operations. The lips of the part 
are swollen, and of a dark color, and subject to irritation which 
causes the ewe to rub, and at times to lacerate, the part. The 
treatment should be simple washing of the part with warm water 
and carbolic soap, injecting as well two ounces of warm water in 
which half a dram of hyposulphite of soda is dissolved. Circum- 
stances, such as the spread of this disease, among other ewes, 
have led to the belief that this disorder is contagious. It is cer- 
tainly so to the ram at the serving season, and lest it might be- 
come chronic, it should be treated without delay. The treatment, 
when the disease is persistent, is to wash and inject the part with 
the hyposulphite solution, and to give half a dram of the sulphite 
dissolved in water, daily for a week, by the mouth. 

GARGET OR INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. 

This disease is rare with the ewe, except when she is deprived 
of her lamb too suddenly at the weaning time. It rarely occurs at 
the birth of the lamb, but yet may do so by reason of exposure 
to cold, especially wet cold, as of heavy Spring rains, soon after, 
or at the birth of the lamb. It soon yields to emollient treat- 
ment, such as bathing with warm — almost hot— water with a little 
alcohol in it. After bathing, the udder is rubbed gently by the 
hand, and vaseline applied. Two drams of Epsom salts may be 
given, and the feed should be only hay or grass. This disorder is 
apt to happen if the ewes are fed too liberally soon after lambing, 
with such exciting food as the oil cakes. A warm mash of oatmeal 
with one-fourth as much linseed meal may be given twice a day. 
If the milk is thick, inject a small quantity of solution of common 
baking soda, or saleratus, into the udder, and after a few minutes 
milk it out. 

ABORTION. 

When a pregnant animal expels the fetus before it has become 
sufficiently developed to live outside and separated from^ the 
parent, abortion (partus immaturus, or immature birth) is said to 
occur. When the birth occurs before the due period, but with its 



312 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP, 

organs sufficiently matured for the perfect operation of the vital 
functions, it is partus prematurus, or premature birth. The 
former occurrence is a disease, the latter simply an accidental 
shortening of the normal pei'iod of the inter-uterial growth and 
existence of the fetus. In practice these two conditions differ only 
in the result. Abortion is the birth of an immature fetus which is 
dead, or too weak and ill-formed to live. A premature birth re- 
sults in a weak animal which may live and thrive or succumb 
and perish, in a short time. It is frequently the case that an 
animal prematurely born may by good management survive and 
become as profitable as one that has passed its full time. 

The sheep, and the goat— a closely-related species— are most 
liable to this accident of all the smaller domestic animals; but 
not nearly so as the cow. The cow averages 20 per cent of abor- 
tions, the sheep, amonp^ nearly 6,000 recorded births, suffered 
26 abortions only. 

Abortion occurs in the sheep and goat generally twenty days 
or more before the due period, or the 140th day after fecundation. 
The nearer this limit the more serious the risk of the dam is. 

Abortion is sporadic, that is, occurs here or there over a wide 
extent; or it is epizootic, and occurs numerously in any special 
and distinct locality. 

The former occurrence may be due to an unfavorable season 
in which the eAves suffer unusual hardships, mostly deficiency of 
food or sudden unfavorable conditions of the weather. Dry cold 
is not 90 mischievous as wet, cold weather; and frosty nights fol- 
lowing Avarm days, or perhaps more accurately the reverse, is the 
most frequent of all accidents. Pasturing on the frosty herbage 
in such a condition of weather so chills the Avomb by contact 
Avith the cold stomach, as to produce this disorder more frequently 
than any otlier cause. As prevention is the only remedy for this 
disease, it is the business of the shepherd to exercise caution in 
this regard. Another frequent cause of abortion is overloading the 
stomach Avith coaree, innutritions, indigestible fodder; in fact 
the stomach is so closely connected Avith the uterus, that a sym- 
pathy between these tAvo organs exists which is to be Avell consid- 
ered by the shepherd, and the feeding is to be so managed that 
indigestion, and especially bloating of the stomach, is to be 
avoided. It also goes Avithout saying that the food of a pregnant 
ewe is to be suiFiciently nutritious and well balanced to supply all 
the needs of the eAA^e and the fetus Avithin her. 

Certain foods, too, are to be avoided. These are the coarse 
sedges and Aveeds growing on low lands; the aromatic ragweed 
and" allied plants Avhich contain a similar essential oil to Avhich 
the strong odor is due; the leaves of turnips in a frozen condition, 
and the leaves of the beet in any condition are all liable to cause 
abortion, or so alleged by several noteworthy authorities. 

Bogs ara the most serious cause of this disease by chasing 
or injuring the ewes during the latter part of the pregnancy. 
Fright, probably by its injurious action on the nervous system, 
aa well as the violent physical exertion, conspire to produce this 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 313 

result. All these instances go to suggest sucli precautions as will 
insure immunity from this form of the disease. 

One special instance should not be omitted, which is the effect 
of some natural influence or defect of the ram. For instance, 
over use, having too many ewes to serve; too early an age and 
consequent inability; and a defective constitution; all go to 
produce essential weakness of the fetus; which, as h approaches 
the end of the fetal period, has not sufHcient strength to mature, 
and thus dies and is ejected. 

lliere are no premonitory symptoms in this form of the 
disease. Abortion may occur suddenly and usually does, so that 
the fetus is lost without the knowledge of the shepherd. It hap- 
pens mostly in the night, and the appearance of the aborted fetus 
in the pasture or the pens, is the only indication to the shepherd 
that some ewe has gone wrong, but which he will probably never 
discover. The results on the ewe are rarely noticeable and of 
course any treatment Avhatever is out of the question, unless the 
ewe may be found suffering from bleeding or prostration through 
sympathetic action of the nervous system. In this case a dose of 
two drams of laudanum may be given v/ith good results. 

Epizootic abortion is due to contagion. It may appear suddenly 
in one flock and in a short time be active in many others at the 
same time throughout an extensive locality. In this form the 
disease is alwaj'S due to the presence of a certain germ allied to 
the common molds — Pencillium glaucum — the common green mold 
or mildew, possibly originating in the field. This germ spreads 
from the ejected matter of one animal to the related parts of 
others, and thus disease spreads rapidly through a flock and from 
one to another in various ways. The treatment is to carefully 
disinfect the ewes by injecting one or two ounces solution of car- 
bolic acid, twenty drops of the acid to the ounce of water, twice 
in the daj^. Two ounces of infusion of black hair (viturnum 
prompolium) in hot water, may be given when cooled down to the' 
ewes which gives indications of aboi"ting, or to all of them in the 
flock as a safe precaution. 

As a preventive, the condition of the ewes is to be maintained 
during pregnane;^ by good food, carefully avoiding ergotted grain 
or haj^ or smutty corn or oats, together with straw or fodder 
from crops that have been infected by smut. Pure water, free 
from all marshy drainage, only should be given to the flock. 

COMMON DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

ANEMIA— PAPER SKIN— THROAT THREAD WOR^IS. 

This disease affects lambs mostly, and is recognized by the 
white and bloodless appearance of the skin; the general weakness 
of the young animals, and cough whicih has a rattling sound, in con- 
sequence of which the Aveakened lambs are able to breathe only 
with difficulty. The disease is due to the presence in the throat, 
and air passages of the lungs, of a small white worm, slender and 



314 



THE DOMESTEC SHEEP. 




Fig 1 —Lung Worm. 



almost invisible in the mass of frothy mucus in which they are 
gathered in clusters. This worm is known as Strongylus Filaria. 

The diisease is immediately ree- 
ognized by severe coug'liing fits . of 
the infested animals, mostly lainbs 
under a year old. The difficulty in 
breathing necessarily prevents the 
due aeration and purification of the 
blood as it passes through the capil- 
laries of the lungs, to be refreshed 
by the pure air breathed. The red 
corpuscles of the blood are greatly 
decreased in number, and as these 
are necessary to the full develop- 
ment of the body the affected lamb 
languishes, becomes weak, the blood 
is reduced to a yellow serum with- 
out vitality, and all the visible 
membranes are pale, and the skin 
has the appearance of paper. Hence 
the common name of this disease. 
The treatment depends on the destruction of the parasite. 
This is mo'st easily affected by the use of turpentine, continued un- 
til the system is saturated with it and the fumes escape through the 
lungs and throat. Here the volatile oil comes in contact with the 
parasite and kills it, thus relieving the suffering animal most ef- 
fectivel}'. As soon as relief is afforded in this way, the most easily 
digested and nutritious food, as linseed meal, with oatmeal and 
bran, is to be given dail.y, in moderate quantities to insure full di- 
gestion. The tui'pentine is most easily given in sweet milk, the two 
shaken together to form an emulsion. The quantity is one tea- 
spoonful given in the morning before eating, and repeated daily 
for a week. 

These worms are believed to gain access to the lambs with 
the grass of the pastures, and it is believed — doubtless with ample 
reason — that, as the old sheep are equally affected by this parasite, 
this is ejected by them either by coughing or through the bowels, 
and falling on the grass they, or the eggs of them, are taken up 
by the lambs feeding with the ewes. To avoid this infection, 
lambs should never be permitted to pasture with the ewes, and 
the meadows should be liberally dressed with fresh air slaked 
lime everjT^ Spring or Fall. 

As a help to restore the condition of the lambs give each one 
a half teaspoonful of a mixture of gentian, ginger and sulphate of 
iron, a most useful tonic mixture, which will hereafter in this 
chapter be termed the tonic mixture. These ingredients are finely 
powdered and mixed, and one teaspoonful is a dose for a full- 
grown sheep. It is easily given in some ground feed or with mo- 
lasses spread on the back of the tongue. 



DISEASES OP SHEEP. 315 

TAPE WORMS. 

This class ot animal parasites are all of the greatest interest 
to the scientific student on account of the peculiarity of their 
habits. They doubtless cause more ailments of all kinds, some 
quite unsuspected as the results of the special cause, than any other 
similar cause of diseases. The sheep is unusually exposed to this 
class of parasites and on account of the curious life history of 
them while passing through the sheep the sheep suffer more from 
them than from any other cause of disease. 

TENIA MARGINATA. 

Tenia marginata is the name of one of the most common 
of these parasites. This name, deinved from the Latin, means in 
plain English, the margined or bordered ribbon worm. This indi- 
cates the figure of the mature worm, which as seen in the illus- 
tration, is a long slender ribbon-formed thing, with a corrugated 
border or margin. It reaches a length when mature of no less 
than eight feet and a width of nearly half an inch. In this form 
it inhabits the intestines of the dog. Thus at the start we find 
that the dog or some other animal related to it, is necessary +o 
the perfection of the life history of this creature. The illustra- 
tion given shows the general figure of this worm in its adult stage. 
The slender part, (a) is the head, shown enlarged at (b, b,) the 
body increasing in size and in length of section or segments .to 
the end (d, d,) from which the segments are shed as they mature 
(c, c and d,) filled with eggs. These segments are voided by the dog 
or other bearer and if on the grass of a pasture, or near water, it 
is a foregone conclusion that the sheep must some time or other, 
in the list of chances, pick up some of these eggs, when the mfec- 
tion begins. . 

In the sheep, the egg soon transforms mto a young worm 
which is enclosed in a cyst or bladder, the end of the neck of 
which is the head of the worm. The cysts mostly mhabit the 
liver of the sheep, but have been found in the heart, lungs, and 
muscles To reach these resting places the minute eggs or em- 
bryos must penetrate the wall of the sheep's stomach, and enter 
the minute capillary veins from which they easily pass through 
the larger veins into the liver or other resting places, where they 
remain until they either kill the host, or die for want of the 
means of development. In the former case the sheep perishes of 
the disease set up in the liver by the irritating presence^ of the 
Dara=ite or the disease may exist m the abdomen m the lorm ot 
neritonitis. A^Tien the dead sheep is in the course of nature made 
a pVey to the dog, the wolf or the coyote, the cysts contammg the 
eggs are swallowed, and at once begin their final development 

^"'^f rs"e1dnV-Tthat this disease due to this parasite must 
be deadly to the sheep, which is the common result: or the para- 
site is no longer troublesome except so far as regards the perma- 
nent encyltnfent of the living or dead embryo in the muscles. 




■^ (D 

«3 






DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



317 



or whatever internal organ the cyst may have lodged in. If this 
occurs the remains of the parasite will be marked by a limy deposit 
at the spot where it perished. But there exists this danger, li 
the embryos become encysted in the muscles of any animal whose 
flesh is used as food, and the embryos are still living, those per- 
sons who may eat the meat of such animals, and which has not 
been sufficiently cooked, will become infected; as is so frequently 
the case among persons who consume tlieir food half cooked, 
or not cooked at all. This does actually occur to an enoraious 
extent among half civilized peoples. Dry mutton hams may thus 
infect persons who eat them. In this cystic form the parasite is 
known as Cysticercus tenni-collis, or the slender-necked, round 
cj'sted worm. 

If the worm is to be att<acked at all it should be in the dog. 
This is an easy method, for by administering the proper antidote 
at regular interA'als of two months, the worms may be destroyed 
and the sheep delivered from the danger so far. As another tape 
worm of the sheep inhabits the dog and its term is nearly a month, 
the- safe way would be to give the medicine every twenty days, 
thus covering the intervals of each of these parasites. Areca 
nut is the most effective remedy for this use. The freshly ground 
powder, in quantity equal to two grains for each pound of live 
weight of the dog, may be given with butter or in any other 
convenient and simple way. The dog should go unfed from noon 
the previous day and until a fcAv hours after the medicine is 
given. Two hours after giving the medicine, give one ounce of 
caster oil. Keep the dog tied up until the medicine has operated, 
and the dead worms have been passed. Any other effective sub- 
stitute may be used if the desired efTect is gained. 

TENIA COENURUS.-GID OR STAGGERS IN SHEEP. 

This species of tape worm is the cause of that well knoAATi 
and frequent disease of sheep called Gid, Tumsick or Staggers. 




Adult, Natural Size. 



It is so named because the animal under the influence of the 
disease becomes giddy and is compelled by a well known function 
of the brain, to turn to this or the other side, as it moves,impelled 
thereto by the influence of the pressure on either half of the brain 
as the case may be. It is well known that each half of the brain 
exercises its function on that special side of the animal, and thus 
the pressure of the watery bladders, in which the embryos of this 



318 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 




Fig. 4.— Upper Surface of the Brain 
showing at («) the Coenurus cere 
bralis cyst. 



Avonn are contained, on the substance of the brain, causes this 
special result. The sheep turns round and round in small circles, 
staggers, trembles, stops eating and drinking, is convulsed and 
finally dies of paralysis or exhaustion. If the head is examined 

there will be found these cysts, 
draAvings of which are taken from 
Cobbold's Treatise on Internal 
Parasites. These may contain 
many of the immature worms, 
scores or hundreds, attached to 
the inner surface of the bladder. 
It is the pressure of these watery 
bladders, on the substance of the 
brain, by which the j.bnormai 
movements of the sheep are caused. 
Sheep become infected 
through the pasture on w'hich 
they feed, and on which the eggs 
•of the worm nuay have been 
dropped by dogs in their dung, or 
fi'om water in which the eggs may 
have been washed or deposited in 
any of the many ways possible. 
These eggs are taken of course into the sheep's stomach, and 
there hatching, they make their way bj- migration into several 
parts of the body, the eggs doubtless gaining access to the veins 
are thus distributed, but perish wherever deposited, except in the 
brain. Once there, the womis begin a migratory expedition in 
search of a resting place, making galleries through the brain 
substance, until they grow too large, when they form a large 
cyst or bladder in which they remain as above mention<=>d. In 
tim.e, the sheep so infested dies, or is slaughtered, when the head, 
thrown to the dogs, is eaten and these embryos ar swallowed. 
The history of the woniis described in the preceding pages is 
then repeated, and the segment or eggs of them mature in the in- 
testines of the dog until they are discharged and are taken once 
more into the sheep. 

In this larval stage the worm is known as Coenurus cere- 
bralis. After its first introduction into the brain of its host, it 
is about as large as a mustard seed, and the disease becomes 
manifest in five or six weeks after its introduction. It then 
grows for some months, during which its effects are constantly 
increasing in virulence until the final symptoms appear and the 
death of the sheep follows. 

The first symptoms of the disease noticed are dullness, feeble- 
ness, heat in the head, redness of the eyes, and hastened circula- 
tion. The head suffers visibly, being stretched out, turned back, 
or carried drooping. Then follow spasmodic convulsions or par- 
alysis. During these manifestations of pain and distress, the 
sheep makes those typical movements, turning in circles towards 
the side of the head affected most, or if the parasite is in the cen- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 319 

ter of the brain, going forwards, pressing the head against a wall 
or gate or fence, and standing stupidly. Death may then occur 
in a few days or the sheep may appear to recover for a few 
months when a different attack vdll occur. Two per cent is the 
average of recoveries from these 'attacks. It has happened that 
this worm selects, or is forced so to do, the? spinal cord for its 
resting place. Then the sheep walk with a staggering gait, and in- 
flammation along the spine with all the symptoms of myelitis 
occurs. There is little hope for cure by any of the alleged opera- 
tions that have been reported, such as piercing the skull with a 
sharp-pointed syringe, and drawing off the serum from the blad- 
ders, when the worms will die, and the offending matter will 
be absorbed without serious results. These alleged successful 
operations are doubtless the vain stories of shepherds, who Avere 
not sure of the disease ever existing. The skull may be 
punctured and the brain operated on, and water may exist in the 
cavity of the skull with some such manifestations as in this 
peculiar disease. And this is doubtless the explanation of these 
alleged cures of this complaint. 

The only cure is prevention by ridding the dogs of the tape 
worms, by slaughtering the affected sheep at the early stage of 
the disease, and carefully destroying the head and its contents. 
A sheep in good condition may be used for food without risk 
when thus disposed of. 

TAENIA ECHINOCOCCUS HYDATIDS. 

This worm is known as the many -headed tape worm. As it 
is not existing in this part of the world, it is merely mentioned so 
far as to say that its seat is in the liver and the lungs, and its 
history and the methods of prevention are the same as those 
described in the two above sections. The same applies to 

TENIA TENALLA, THE MUTTON MEASLE. 

This worm exists in the loin muscles of the sheep, forming 
white spots as large as flaxseed in the meat. It is only noticed to 
any considerable extent in Eastern Europe. 

TENIA FIMBRIATA.— THE GALL-DUCT TAPE W0E,:M. 
FEINGED TAPE WORISI. 

This worm is distinctly an American pest. Its alleged native 
home was in Brazil. Its common name is the fringed tape worm. 
It reaches about one foot in length, and about a quarter of an 
inch in width. It is found in the duodenum, the large bowel next 
to the stomach, and also in the gall ducts. A large number of 
them have been found at one examination in the duodenum, 
sometimes amounting to a hundred. Usually from two to thirty 
are found. "S^lien found in a flock nearly every sheep will be in- 
fested. It exists so abundantly on the Western plains as to cause 
greater losses than from any other parasites. It has been found 
m flocks in Utah, Colorado, Nebraska and westward to the 



330 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



Pacific. It has been found in deer killed in many parts of these 
Western localities, and the author" has identified it in several 
specimens sent to him mostly from Arizona and New Mexico, 
from both deer and sheep. 




Fig. 5.— Adult, Natural Size. 




Qm 




f-1-"-- ■•■'-■, r - - ' yy 

Segments 
near Head. 

The illustrations, fig- 5, show the special character of this 
tape worm, Avith the fringed edges, of the segments. Its form is 
lanceolate in its contracted state, but linear when extended. 
When contracted, the fringes being drawn closely together appear 
like plush. The shedding of the fertile segments begins early in 
life and continues until death. The head is provided with four 
cup-like suckers. 

These "s^^orms are found in sheep during the whole year, but 
none in lambs under ten months old. It seems that the breeding 
locality is the duodenum, as worms less than one-tenth of an inch 
in length have been found in it, when the gall ducts were en- 
tirely filled. The manner of reproduction is by the separation of 
the final segments as in other tape worms. At two months age 
the worms are about half an inch in length, in four months the 
wonn has grown to five inches in length, at Avhich time they be- 
gin to aft'ect the condition of the infected sheep. This effect is to 
stop, or dwarf, the growth; reduce fat lambs to skeletons, thin, 
hidebound, and dwarfed, with little wool, and that weak and ten- 
der in the fiber. 

The lambs shoAv the first indications of the disease by their 
gradual loss of condition. A desire to eat coarse, indigestible food, 
a depraved appetite in fact, is one of the first evidences of in- 
fection. Thus the sheep have been found to eat large quantities 
of the so-called loco or crazy weeds of the plains, but more cor- 
rectly the two plants known by this name, but correctly as As- 
traloagus mollismus, and a closely related other plant, a species 
of Oxytropis. These are well known to the stockmen of the 
Western plains, as being injurious to horses and cattle and as well 
to sheep. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 321 

The disturbance of the digestive functions by this inteifereace 
with the circulation and distribution of tlie bile is general in its 
effect. The digestive process is incomplete, and the food does not 
nourish. Hence the result is starvation to such a degree as these 
functions are impaired. All the symptoms, the staggering gait, 
loss of fat and leanness, the watery effusions, and the foolish con- 
duct noted, are attributable to this defective nourishment of the 
animal, and the weakening of the functions of the brain. So far 
all professional treatment has been at fault, unless it may be 
said that the proprietary vermifuges and tonics in use have been 
found most useful. The manner of life of this parasite should in- 
dicate to the veterinary the use of such diffusive remedies as tur- 
pentine podophyllin, taraxacum, and sulphate of iron, or other 
remedies having special action on the functions of the liver, and 
that are absorbed into the blood, and so pass through the liver 
in a most effective condition. It is all the more reasonable that 
the professional practitioner should adopt some of the methods 
of the specific compounders, and not think of these as quacks 
as long as their remedies succeed, Avhile they themselves fail disas- 
trously to cope with this deadly tribe of parasites. 

As with all parasitic diseases it is the Aveak that go to the 
wall. To sustain the strength, to get the lambs past the fatal 
stage, is to be the effort of the shepherd. Thus good feeding from 
the start, pure water infallibly supplied, to avoid a season of Win- 
ter starvation, to provide shelter in bad weather, in fact for the 
shepherd to do as he would wish to be done by, were he to 
change places with his flock, should be the rule. If it costs a 
little more to save a sheep than to let it die miserably in the 
Spring, after having been fed for the whole Winter, the cost is 
returned with some profit, while a dead sheep is a profitless 
property. 

THE BROAD TAPE W0R:M OF SHEEP— TENIA 
EXP ANSA. 

This is the most conspicuous of all the tape worms on ac- 
count of its comparatively enormous size. Its length reaches about 
16 feet, and European writei^ allege that it has been found con- 
siderably exceeding this, even up to scores of feet; the maximum of 
the fertile imagination of some alleged observers mounting up to 
90 or 100 feet. These writers, it may be observed, are natives of 
the country of the noted story teller, the Baron :\lunchausen, 
whose observations, as narrated by him, certainly tax the wildest 
credulity. We may reasonably rest on our own observations, 
and on the comparatively gigantic size of our own worms, and 
stop at the moderate length of five yards or about one-third of the 
length of the whole of the intestinal canal of the sheep. It is 
flat and thin, being about one-tenth of an inch in thickness, and 
in widrh from one-twenty-fifth of an inch at the head to three- 
fourths of an inch at the other end, from which the fertile seg- 
ments separate as in other tape worms. The head is larger than 
the smallest part of the neck, and about as large as the head of 



332 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

the smallest pin. Its body is made up of very short but wide 
joints, increasing in width from the head to the other extremity, 
at which, as with other tape worms, the mature segments sep- 
arate and pass out of the intestines. 

These worms have no alimentary canal, but absorb their 
nutriment through the surface of the segments. The em- 
bryos exist in the mature segments. They are too small 
to be apparent to the sight. Each of them is provided 
with hooks by which they attach themselves to the coats of the 
intestines. The worms are found all over the United States, and 
are at work in every month in the year. In the Spring and Fail, 
Summer and Winter, they have been found in the intestines of 
lambs slaughtered at the abattoirs. They are more abundant in 
some localities than in others, and in the Summer than in the 
Winter. Overfed and bare pastures are the most prolific sources 
of infection, by which it is apparent that the segments ejected 
from the bowels, and falling on the ground, are in some way 
picked up by the lambs and become matured in their intestines. 
There is no intermediate bearer of this parasite. 

The growth of the young worms is very rapid. They have been 
found two to five yards long in lambs two to four months old, 
which is equivalent to a foot to two feet of growth in a week. All the 
knowledge possessed by careful investigators goes to prove be- 
yond question that this worm does not pass any stage of its exis- 
tence in the bodies of any other animals of any kind than the 
sheep, and its life history is thus simple and devoid of the interest 
in this i-egard attaching to other tape Avorms. 

The existence of the worms becomes evident by the appear- 
ance of the white segments attached to the small balls of dung 
voided by the sheep, or by these adhering to the wool about the 
top of the tail. This, however, only happens after the lamb has 
been infested some time and the segments of the tape worms 
have become matured. The worst results to the sheep by the 
presence of these worms seem to be due to the intestinal irrita- 
tion set up by them, and the reflex action of this on the nervous 
system. But the wonns obstruct the intestines as well by their 
large size, irritate it by their movements, produce excessive intes- 
tinal secretions, non-assimilation of food, and as well abstract 
nutritious matter from their victims for their own growth. The 
results are necessarily the wasting of the lambs which become 
poor, unthrifty, and hidebound, and frequently pot bellied by 
distension from gas in the bowels, or shrunken and gaunt for 
want of sufReient support. 

The symptoms in addition to these are pale membranes 
(paper skin), dry, harsh fleece without yolk or oil, a tottering gait, 
and the lambs eat and drink more than with their natural appe- 
tite, Init at the same time fail to digest their food or thrive upon 
it. Finally diarrhea becomes more and more severe and death 
occurs by actual starvation and exhaustion. 

If, however, the lambs can be safely carried over until the 
worms are all ejected as segments, and no fresh infection occurs, 
recovery is rapid and the lambs soon become fat and thrifty- 



324 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

As these worms are readily expelled and always within reach 
by effective antidotes, treatment is always hopeful. The popular 
remedies in the market prepared by expei'ts and well endorsed 
by known persons, may generally be relied upon; and by following 
directions have been found effective. Outside of these the use 
of turpentine, in half ounce doses on the empty stomach for a few 
days; the roots of the male fern powdered in two ounce doses; 
or the etheric oil of the root in one dram doses, given in two to 
four ounces of castor oil for a full grown sheep have all been 
found more or less effective. Tansy in two to six dram doses has 
been recommended as a preventative, and is a useful ingredient in 
some of the proprietary worm powders. Regular use of salt with 
the standard tonic mixture given on page 314 of this chapter has 
been found a valuable element of safety in the way of prevention 
against this pest. 

THE STOMACH ROUND WORMS— STRONGYLUS CON- 
TORTUS— THE TWISTED STRONGYLE. 

The twisted strongyle inhabits the fourth stomach of the 
sheep and the goat. It is by no means a serious pest except in the 
flocks that are neglected and in poor condition, and unable to 
resist misfortune. It is from five to ten inches in length (the male 
is one-third shorter), has a reddish-colored body, and the female 
is marked with a spiral double line entwining the whole length 
of it. It is also found twisted in loops, whence the name contor- 
tus. They live their whole life in the fourth stomach, in Avhich 
they set up serious irritation, besides greatly interfering with the 
nutrition of the sheep and the abstraction of blood from the 
coats of the stomach. Their red color is supposed to be due to 
the blood thus draAvn. The symptoms arising from the presence 
of this parasite in the stomach are weakness, paleness of the 
skin and membranes, some fever, diarrhea, and wasting of the 
body generally. 

This stomach worm, like the common throat and Irug 
strongyle, has no other host than the sheep, passing its life in the 
stomach, its eggs or mature body filled with eggs being ejected 
with the dung of the old sheep which are able to resist its effects 
better than the weaker lambs, and these eggs are taken up with 
the grass of pastures by the lambs. It is quite possible that 
the young lambs may be infested directly by the sheep, whose tag 
locks on the hind parts— smeared with dung— may have many of 
the eggs of these worms on them, and these being sometimes 
sucked by the young lambs hunting ignorantly for the teats, be- 
come means of infection. That sucking lanibs are infested by 
these worms can hardly be explained otherwise. 

The presence of these worms in the lambs cannot be surely 
known except by examination after death, although the symptoms 
are fairly well sufRcient for a diagnosis by the veterinarian. The 
most successful treatment known to the author has been by 
small, frequent doses of turpentine in milk, in the proportion of 
one part of the former to eight or ten of the latter, and two ounces 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. '^25 

or tablespoonfuls being a dose for a lamb half grown. ^ A standard 
preparation for this disease is made up as follows: Three pounds 
of salt and half a pound of salti>eter, are dissolved in three gallons 
of warm water, and half a pound of ground ginger is then well 
infused in the liquid, kept warm for a few houi-s. When it has 
cooled to milk Avarm, 24 ounces of turpentine is added, and the 
whole well shaken. Two ounces is a dose for one lamb. Along 
with this medicine, given on an empty stomach early in the morn- 
ing, the standard tonic mixture should be given alternately. As with 
all diseases of this kind the most nutritious and easily digestible 
food is required, as linseed and oatmeal mashes, the best hay and 
some sliced carrots or parsnips for the winter feeding, and good 
clover pasture in the Summer. 

INTESTINAL ROUND WORMS. 

American sheep harbor at least six species of round worms, 
all of them imported from Europe, and one which is native to this 
continent. These various species are: 

Strongylus Filicollis, Strongylus Ventricousus, found m the 
duodenum; Dochmius cornus, Ascaris lumbricoides, found in the 
small intestine; Tricocephalus afiinis, found in the caecum or 
blind gut; Sclorostoma hypostomum, found in the large intestine; 
Oesophagostoma Columbianum, found in the large intestme. 

None of these are of any serious importance except the last, 
which is widely spread, and causes such a conspicuous injury to 
the intestines as to have been given a special name, knotty guts, 
by the butchers. 

The symptoms produced by all or any of these worms are gen- 
eral debility, indigestion, and resulting emaciation. These are the 
results of absence of nutrition due to the interference with the 
digestive functions, by reason of the constant irritation of the 
bowels. It is mostly the case that a sheep or lamb is infected by 
more than one of these parasites at once, and in many instances 
it has been found that several of them are harbored by the sheep 
together. It seems as if everj' sheep is infested less or more, 
and even those in the l^est condition and the fattest that come 
into the butchers' hands, have a few of these parasites, and some so 
many that it is a matter of surprise that the sheep could maintain 
their high condition. -u j v ^ 

As a matter of interest these parasites are described, but 
treatment is so difficult and there are so many other causes by 
which the special symptoms may be produced, that it is better 
for all concerned to study the means of prevention rather than 
those of improbable cures. 

It is known that sheep mav become infected with at least one 
of this kind of worms through the swine with whom they may be 
. pastured. Thus the large, round worm, Ascaris Lumbricoides, has 
bean found in sheep although it is a specific parasite for s^vine. 
It is also kvovra that pastures become seriously infected by sev- 
eral kinds of worms that are found in sheep, and the investiga- 
tions of the scientific students have shown conclusively that it is 



326 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. . 

in this way that the majority of sheep and lambs become diseased. 
To dress the pastures with fresh, air-slaked lime in the season 
when the flocks are not pasturing is an excellent preventive 
against all this class of parasites, and the regular culture of the 
land, the plowing and the growing of crops in the regular rota- 
tion; the completion of which is the seeding of the land with 
grass and clover, will both be a help to the fai^mer Avho keeps 
sheep, but of course of no avail to those who range their sheep. 
These must depend on those medicinal prepa-rations made for this 
special purpose of avoiding these parasites, or tonic mixtures by 
which the natural strength and vitality of the sheep may be 
maintained, for it is the feeble and the ill-nourished that fall as 
an easy prey to these parasites. 

OESOPHAGOSTOMA COLUIMBIANUM-NODULAR DISEASE 
OF THE INTESTINES— KNOTTY GUTS- 

It is only in recent years that this parasite has been known 
as the cause of the disease commonly named above. Less than 



4, 



Fig. 7.— «, a, Male and female, natural size; &, &, Male and female, 
enlarged. (After Haines.) 

ten years ago it Avas discovered iu some investigations as to the 
nature of the knots or small tumors with which the intestines 
of the sheep were more or less covered. This investigation curi- 
ously enough arose from the connection of the sheep's intestines 
Avith sausages. These sausage casings, of course should be perfect, 
and above suspicion, however open to this the contents of them 
might be. The common nodules by which these skins were more or 
less unfitted for this use, made them unsalable, and a loss to the 
butchers. And thus the matter became a subject of investigation 
with the result of discovering that the disease was due to a hith- 
erto unknown parasite of the sheep. 

The cause of this disease is a round worm, and one entirely 
distinct from any other knoAAOi species. The male is about half an 
inch in length, the female a little longer. The head of it is bent 
into somewhat the form of a hook. In the sheep the adult worms 
live in the large intestine, the young ones are found in all parts 
of the bowels encysted in small tumors, at first no larger than the 
head of a pin, filled with a sort of cheesy matter. How the para- 
site enters the sheep there has been no satisfactory information 
gained so far; so tliat we have to deal with these facts. First 
these nodular swellings or tumors are found on the inner walls 
of the intestines. Of course as the walls of the intestines are 
the absorbent organs by which the digested food is taken into the 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 327 

circulation to be completely fitted for the support of life, what- 
ever interferes with this function is a cause of serious disease, 
tending to deprive the animal of its due support, and thus produc- 
ing general want of nutrition and resulting weakness. This is 
precisely the result of this parasite and is so far operative as its 
effect on the bowels may be. 

The symptoms of this disease are signs of general weakness, 
paleness of the lips and eyes, thin pale skin, loss of flesh, dry, 
harsh fleece, and more or less diarrhea which soon produces 
marked emaciation. These results are veiy gradual and slow^ in 
their course, the sheep or lamb seems to be not doing -well, but 
the advance of the disease and the continuous change for the 
Avorse occurs so gradually that the shepherd scarcely realizes the 
extent of the injury until the more serious symptoms occur. A 
persistent diarrhea is the most marked characteristic of the 
disease. 

The tumors increase in size as the worm within grows. In 
time the worms escape and remain loose in the intestines, there 
becoming full grown and reproducing their kind. Not all the 
young worms are thus encysted in these tumors, but only as it 
were a sufficient number to insure the continuance of the race, 
should by some accident the worms at large be destroyed. Con- 
sidering this fact on the general knoAvledge and experience with 
other parasites it might be well supposed and believed that this 
encystment of a portion of the race should be one of the^ means 
by which nature provided for the continuance of life, of what- 
ever form it maj^ be, and that in case the sheep died from the 
effects of the parasite, there should be a remnant left— as we saj^— 
for seed; and by the intervention of some intermediate bearer 
the parasite might have its life insured, so to say, that the race 
might not be completely extinguished. 

Treatment in such conditions as these is evidently a difficult 
matter to suggest. For the worms that are loose in the bowels 
the common antidotes might be useful, such as turpentine, given 
in the usual manner, or other medicines destructive to these 
creatures. These combined with tonics and with general good 
care and feeding, with pure water, may tide over the period of 
life of the race or make the animal an uninviting place for the 
parasite to live. As to the encysted worms, these are beyond 
reach unless it may be of such easily absorbed remedies as tur- 
pentine. Avhieh passes through the blood and thus reaches every 
part of the svstem. 

It is clear that such methods of prevention as may be tound 
effpctive will be the most useful. And one of the most effective 
of these is a rotation of crops, and short, feeding intervals be- 
tw^een the crops not exceeding one season at the most. If one 
might be able to start wnth a flock of completely unaffected sheep, 
and then bv a wise and thoroughly managed continuous quaran- 
tine so to 'speak, bv which infection may be averted, then the 
land mav be completely freed from this obnoxious parasit^, and if 
this method were generally followed, and no fresh stock be mtro- 



328 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



duced until it be known to be sound and free from infection, 
then, and then only, will this parasite be brought under con- 
trol. As it is, by the how-not-to-do-it method, this as all other 
of the parasites of the sheep are visibly increasing in vast num- 
bers, and thus as we may say we are but at the beginning of a 




Fig. a— (ESOPHAGOSTOMA. COLUMBIAN UM. 

Caecum showing wall filled with Nodules as seen at a and h. About 

one-half natural size. (Original.) 

crisis of what the end may be no one can think, or assert, 
but every one may consider it as a senous matter for thought 
and then due action. The importance of this great and most an- 
cient industry of our race cannot surely be seriously threatened in 
these days of intelligence and of scientific adaptation of means 
to ends through all the affairs of mankind. We must always think 
of that traly scientific maxim, an axiom truly, that is an self-evi- 
dent truth, that the fittest only will survive. And the American 
shepherd must make himself fit by study of his flocks, knowing 
their full needs, and in all the ways that circumstances may indi- 
cate and suggest, adapt everything to this one end, viz., to make 
himself thoroughly conversant with the needs of his flocks, and 
then apply 'himself with every possible effort to meet these most 
effectively. 

THE FLUKE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

Among other deadly parasites of sheep the so-called fluke 
worms, known as Fasciola hepatica and Distoma laneeolatum are 
the deadliest. They have been known to destroy two million 
sheep in England in a single year, and several years ago the same 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



329 



parasites destroyed several times as many in Australia. Unfor- 
tunately we have it with us, but not nearly to the same extent; 
probcvbly because of the muen smaller proportion of sheep to our 
vastly greater territory. The history of this parasite is quite simi- 
lar to that of other injurious enemies of the sheep — as the tape 
worms for instance — in that it needs an intermediate bearer in 




Mature Fluke. 



which to pass the first stage of its existence. This is a mollusk, a 
species of snail, which inhabits fresh Avater mars^hes. The curious 
historj^ of this parasite is of great interest to the American shep- 
herd, because we have the bearer of it here and the creature itself. 
It is comparatively abundant in the marshes of the Northwest 
and has been found in the States of New York and Pennsylvania. 
In the former locality it has been found in the livers of deer and 
rabbits: and. in rabbits in Pennsylvania. It has also been found 





Fig. 10. 
The Fluke Egg. 



Fig. 11. Fig. 12. 

Egg with Embryo. The p:mbryo. 




Fig. 13. 
Snail Enlarged. 



in the flock of Southdowns owned by the late Royal Phelps, on 
Long Island, N. Y.; but in this case the parasite Avas unquestion- 
ably imported in the sheep, which were Southdowns presented to 
Mr. Phelps by an English friend. This introduction of the pest 
was doubtless successful in establishing it in that locality; as three 
years had elapsed since the sheep had been imported. 

The mollusk in which the fluke passes its larval stage is a 
snail, but it is not that the sheep devour the snails, and so take 
up the parasite, but the young of the fluke are taken up by the 
sheep as they drink at stagnant ponds or water holes in marshy 
ground, where in an intermediate stage they pass a portion of their 
existence. Then, finding their way from the stomach, to the liver. 



330 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



they enter the gall bladder and its connected ducts, where they 
create such a serious functional disturbance as to cause an over- 
flow of the bile into the blood, by which parts of the body — 
the eyes, skin and fat — become yellow, and a yellow serum col- 
lects in the abdomen, causing the diseased sheep to appear "pot- 





FiG. 15. 
A Mature and Dividing Sporocyst. 

bellied." At first the sheep appear to thrive better than 
usual and rapidly make fat, which, however, is yellowish in color. 
Very soon the characteristic dropsy appears, a bag of fluid forms 
under the jaws, severe diarrhea occurs, and the animal soon 
becomes emaciated and perishes miserably by a slow wasting until 
completely exhausted. 

As the fluke does not inhabit salt water, salt marshes are safe 
pasture grounds; but it does not follow that salt given to the 
sheep is any sort of preventive or remedy. In fact, cure of the 




Fig. 17.— Young and Mature Redia. 



disease is very rare, and only by the aid of accidental causes, so 
that this disease, is a true pestilence, killing nearly every sheep 
attacked, and it is only by due means of prevention that it is 
possible to avoid, it. These are the drainage of wet pastures, the 
use of pure water from wells, and to put imported sheep through 
a sufficient course of quarantine; carefully burning all the manure 
made by them so as to destroy any possible source of infesting the 
land. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP 831 

ILLUSTRATIONS DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 

Fig. 9.— ]\Iature fluke— flesh color, one inch to one and one- 
third inches long. Circle at top is sucker that attaches to diseased 
part. ^Mature fluke produces as many as 7,000,000 eggs. Fig. 10 is 
fluke's egg, oval with transparent shell. An embryo forms in two 
Aveeks when temperature is 80 degrees. Fig. 11, egg with embryo 
formed. Fig. 12, embryo hatched. The broad end is directed for- 
ward in swimming, in its center is a peg-like projection used in 
boring. If embryo finds the Limuoeus truncatulus (fig. 13) it com- 
mences to bore. It bores until it strikes the snail's lung where 
the embryo fluke develops. Tlie form of embryo changes to fig. 
14 — the 1st generation in the snail termed sporocyst — a bag of 
germs. This sporocyst develops an offspring, their 2nd generation 
called the redia. Fig. 15 is a matured sporocyst containing a num- 
ber of redia. The largest one at lower end is well developed and 
ready to force through the walls of the parent — the wound heals 
up and germs remaining continue to grow. The redia go from 
the lung to the other organs of the snaik Fig. 16 is a full grown 
redia with a mouth and intestine and produces the 3rd generation. 
The ofl'spring of the redia (fig. 17) are tad-pole shaped and called 
cercaria. This 3rd generation of the snail enters the sheep and 
produces the liver fluke. The cercaria leaves the snail and becomes 
attached to 3nd encysted to grass stalks. These cysts remain dor- 
mant until swallowed by the sheep. The number of cercaria de- 
scended from a single fluke egg is from 200 to 1,000 or more— 
thus a single fluke may through the changes described above pro- 
duce more than 100,000,000 descendants in a single season. About 
six weeks elapse from the swallowing of the tad-pole before the 
fluke is matured and begins to produce eggs in the liver of the 
sheep. 

THE SHEEP BOT FLY— OESTRUS OVIS. 

Doubtleps most of the diseases of the sheep that are least 
understood, even by . scientific students, at the present time, 
are those due to the presence of internal parasites, of which there 
are at least over twenty in number, that are well known and de- 
scribed. The majority of these are tape Avorms or thread Avorms, 
one only is a fly. We AAall close the list Avith the last, as it is 
well knaAvn to all concerned, and the most common of this class 
of the enemies of the sheep. 

This disagreeable pest is a sort of connecting link between 
the tAvo classes of parasites, external and internal ones. As a 
fly, it much resembles a bee, and as it buzzes about the sheeps" 
heads these animals evince great alarm, loAvering their noses to the 
ground and stamping violently AAath their fore feet. The fly darts 
to the sheep's head at every opportunity and deposits an egg 
on the nostril, while still on the wing. It is the work of an 
instant, and the mischief is done in the twnnkling of an eye. 

The "egg" thus deposited is a liAnng creature, a minute whit« 
grub, scarcely differing from that of the common flesh fly which 



332 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

we may see deposited in clusters on meat, much to the disgust 
of the annoyed housewife. The author has spent some hours 
in watching this habit of the fly, using a hampered sheep as the 
subject, and has collected several specimens of the maggot. The 
maggot very soon begins to move in a wriggling manner, drawing 




l^'iG. 18 (a). Fig. 19 (b). Fig. 20 (c). 

Fig. 18.— Adult Female Gad- Fly— slightly enlarged. 
Fig. 19.— Full-grown Grub— natural size. 

Fig. 20.— Head of full-grown Grub— highly magnified— showing hooks 
by which the Grub attaches itself to the mucous membrane. 

itself into the nostril and disappearing in the nasal passage. In 
one day — nearly all spent in observing this single sheep — eighteen 
of these larva were deposited on its nostrils, and it appeared 
that but one fly was engaged in the business that day. The 
rest of tht flock had hidden near a fallen tree in the pasture, 
thrusting their noses close to the space between the tree and the 
soil, or were lying in fence corners with their noses under the 
lowest rail, or huddled together with their noses buried in each 
other's fleeces. This is the method by which the fly deposits 
its living eggs, or newly born living young, upon its host, the un- 
happy sheep. The fly is shown at flg. 18 (a); its larva fully 
grown at (b), the hooks by which the gi'ub draws itself up the 
nostril and attaches itself to the membrane lining the cavity of 
the skull are shown at (c), and at fig. 21 is shown the part of the 
skull in which the grub passes fully three-fourths of the year, 
emerging when fully grown and falling to the ground into which 
it burrows a little space, and remains until the warm weather, 
when it begins active business in reproducing its race. Doubtless 
the greater number of these grubs perish in the interval between 
emerging from the sheep and completing the final transformation 
into the flj^-, falling a prey to moles, birds, and carnivorous 
beetles; but sufficient number escape to continue the race and 
make the sheep's summer life, otherwise happy, a miserable one. 
The parasite seems to do little real harm to the sheep except 
to torment it, unless they are quite numerous, when the irritation 
seems to cause so much restlessness that the sheep do not thrive, 
but remain poor. The effect of numbers of the grubs is to inflame 
the membrane, to cause much irritation, and at times to cause 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



333 



bleeding, the blood trickling down the naB^J passages and 
streaking the copious mucus which is snorted out by the sheep 
with violent efforts. .Sometimes the grubs are thus ejected by the 
violence of these efforts. 

There seems to be no practicable remedy even by prevention, 
better than in common use, which is to apply a soft, sticky, 
offensive substance to the sheep's nose by which the eggs 
are destroyed, or the flies driven aAvay. A mixture of common 
tar softened someAvhat by some offensive oil, is frequently used 
with good effects. This tar is a wholesome thing for the sheep as 
an excellent tonic and antiseptic, so that two good uses are made 
of this application. 

Allien the danger has been greater on account of the larger 
number of the flies attacking the flock, the sheeps' noses need to 




Fig 21.— Sheep's head; sinuses invaded by Grub. 

be continually protected by this device, and a mixture of the tar 
with the strongest smelling fish oil may be used, by smearing the 
sheeps' noses with it daily, or every second or third day. 

In cases where the sheep have been seriously attacked by 
the fly, and numerous grubs have lodged in the nasal sinuses on 
each side of the head and just above the eyes as shown at fig. 
21, an effective remedy is to inject a mixture of linseed oil and 
turpentine, in equal parts, by means of a suitable syringe made 
for this purpose. This instrument has a long, slender nozzle, by 
w^hich the sinus may be reached, and it should be made wath three 
or four openings at the end ao that the liquid may be discharged 
in a s.ort of spray, oi diffused stream, and so reach the grubs. 
Another plan borrowed from the Scotch shepherds, who have the 
advantage ccf inheriting a large amount of old fashioned lore from 



834 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



their fathers and grandfathers, through numerous generations, is 
to first apply tobacco smolve in the way mentioned, and the re- 
laxing effect of this causes the grubs to loosen their hold on the 
membrane, when an immediate dose of fine Scotch snuff, blown 
into the sinus through the nozzle of the syringe, or any suitable 
tube, starts so violent a fit of sneezing that the grubs are ejected 
with considerable force. 

When a valuable animal is thus distressed, and it is desired 
to relieve it when serious danger threatens, it is no difficult mat- 
ter to remove the grubs by the operation known as trepanning. 
This is to open the skull by removing a portion of the bone by an 
instrument specially prepared for the purpose, and — which operat- 
ing in a circular way in the manner of a carpenter's bit — cuts a 
round piece of bone from the skull, the flap of skin having been 
first cut loose on three sides and laid back. The grubs are then 
removed by forceps. The flap of skin which is somewhat larger 
than the opening made, is replaced and held bj^ surgeon's rubber 
plaster, to be protected by a suitable bandage. The wound heals 
at once, and although the s'heep will have a soft spot in its 
head, as we say, yet it will not at all interfere with its ordinary 
conduct or health. 

To find the precise spot required for the operation this plan 
is suggested. Shave the wool or hair from the part to be operated 
on. Then draw a line across the head from the point of the mid- 
dle of each eyebrow, divide this line by another passing from the 
tip of the nose in the exact middle to the middle of the forehead. 
The diagram here given will help to c'hoose the precise spot for 
the operation, which is in each angle between the lines. 

The means of prevention con- 
sist in the immediate burning of 
all heads of dead sheep, and this 
not only on account of this 
pest but for the infinitely more 
serious object of doing away 
with the larvae of the tape 
worms which harbor in the brain, 
and do great damage to the flocks, 
as previously commented on in 
this chapter. If the heads of 
sheep are thrown out, the larvae 
of the fly, or of the worm, may be given a very effective means 
of surviving, for the future annoyance and loss of the sheplierd. 

ALBUMINAEIA. 

This disease consists of inflammation of the kidneys. It is 
accompanied by conspicuous symptoms as a straddling, awkward 
gait, and tenderness of the loins which give way when pressed. 
The urine is thick and ropy, and in rams there is a collection 
of matter at the orifice of the sheath. The disease soon develops, 
into dropsy, when the belly becomes filled with yellow senim 
and is conspicuously enlarged, • The treatment of this disease is 




Fig. 22.— Diagram for Trepanning. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 335 

more in variation of food than in medicine. The bowels should 
be kept free by Avarm bran mashes, and if necessary by the u^e 
of sahne laxatives as Epsom salts in two ounce doses, given daily 
If the kidneys fail to act do not give diuretics, but foment the 
loms M'lth hot water and mustard. If this is not effective apply 
fomentations of a strong decoction of digitalis to the loins. The 
tonic mixture will be of great value in restoring the action of the 
stomach and bowels. 

ANTHRAX-BLACK QUARTER-BLACK LEG-BRAXY. 

This disease, called braxy by the English and Scotch shep- 
herds, IS rapidly fatal, and the first information of its appearance 
in a floek is usually the dead sheep lying in the pasture in the early 
morning. It is a special form of the disease of cattle commonly 
known as splenic fever, or Texan fever; but differs from the com- 
mon disease in several ways. It is not believed to be contagious to 
other animals, hence it is due, when prevalent, to some unwhole- 
some condition of the feed or water, or continued indigestion by 
which the blood becomes loaded with impure matter. 

The symptoms are red blood-shot eyes, an excited and alarmed 
expression of the sick animals, a full, rapid pulse, quick breathing, 
hot, dry mouth, the limbs and bod.y— especially the bellj'— are hot 
and the skin is red, the urine is dark colored and scanty, the 
bowels are costive, the dung is slimy, and the animal staggers 
about as if to fall. It generalh^ stands near a fence or a building, 
with the head doAvn and unable to notice anything. 

The later ?ymptoms are harshness of the wool, Avhich, if 
pulled, comes off in handfuls; the animal becomes insensible, falls, 
struggles a little and dies; all this occurring m a fcAV hours. 

Treatment is of no use. The only thing to be done is to un- 
derstand the causes of the disease, and prevent or avoid them. 
After death the body is found already far advanced in putridity. 
The flesh under the skin, where handling causes a sort of crackling 
sound, especially on the shoulder and the loins, is found to be 
filled with gas and much SAvollen, the blood is thick and black, 
whence the name of the disease — anthrax, which means black. 
The belly is filled Avith a red liquid, the omasum — the third stom- 
ach or maniplies — is impacted and filled betAveen the leaA-es AAnth 
hard, dry, undigested food; the heart is filled Avith black blood, 
and the lungs very red. 

Escape from this disease is a matter only of prevention. There 
is no time for this to be treated in any AA^ay. The causes are to be 
aA'oided. As it is not contagious in this form, except through 
poisoning by the dead carcass, it is easily managed after the fir.«t 
appearance of it in a flock. 

Exposure to sudden changes of the AA-eather is to be aA^oided. 
ExcessiA^e Avannth, suddenly changing to cold rain and winds, 
by chilling the body, is one of the most frequent causes. OA^er- 
feeding on rich young grass or luxuriant green crops, too sud- 
denly begun; the use of those foods, as the oil cakes Avhich are 
rich in protein, and thus imusually stiraulatbg; and equally the; 



H36 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

feeding late in the year or early Spring on dead innutritions herb- 
age, are all to be avoided; and it will be very useful at those 
times of the year when the food is either too innutritions, or too 
rich and stimulating, to give Epsom salts in two ounce doses, alter- 
nately with chlorate of potash in thirty grain doses, daily for three 
days. The chlorate may be continued after this by itself every 
second day for a week with advantage. 

ANASARCA— NAVEL DISEASE OF LAMBS. 

This disease is a form of dropsy, and due to poisoning of the 
blood by any sudden check to the secretions of the skin by which 
injurious matter is thrown back into the circulation. In its mani- 
festations, it somewhat resembles the disease described under the 
head of Anthrax, or Braxj^, but differs in the absence of any inflam- 
matory condition of the animal. It appears in the form of swellings 
on various parts of the body, but mostly on the belly and about 
the navel, whence its common name among English shepherds, 
"navel ill." It is accompanied by great prostration, dull and 
blood-shot eyes and a red and congested mouth. The animal lies 
and pants, and has no inclination to move. Generally the head 
is thrown back on the shoulder. The characteristic symptom, 
however, is the dropsical condition on the belly, under the throat 
and jaws, where the swollen parts contain a yellow fluid. Finally 
the limbs swell, the nositrils are swollen until closed and breath- 
ing is difficult. The scanty urine is thick and brick-red in color 
and has a strong odor. 

The causes are sudden changes of the weather; exposure to 
chilling rains; close confinement in ill-ventilated pens; and the 
prevalence of these conditions in our northern climate tends to 
aggravate the tendency to this disease among the lambs. 

The treatment is to give a gentle laxative, as two ounces of raw 
linseed oil, after which one teaspoonful of turpentine may be 
given in sweet milk. Ten grain doses twice daily of chlorate of 
potash are useful. The swellings should be bathed with slightly 
warm solution of one dram of carbolic acid in a quart of water. 
The food should be warm oatmeal gruel sweetened with sugar. 
Small doses of turpentine are given to stimulate the kidneys, 
at intervals of three hours. This increased action of the kidneys 
tends to reduce the dropsical tendency of the disease. 

BRONCHITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE LARGE AIR 
TUBES IN THE LUNGS. 

This disease is an extension downwards of a common sore 
throat, or nasal catarrh. It is a frequent result of exposure 
to cold rains after warm Aveather. It is also caused by the irrita- 
tion of parasitic worms in these air tubes, when it is called 
verminous, or wormy, bronchitis. It has two forms, one is mild 
and soon passes off under naturally improved conditions in a few 
days. In this form the sheep is dull and stands about without eat- 
ing, coughing with a hard sound, but soon becoming soft and rat- 
tling as the discharge from the nose becomes copious. In such 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 337 

cases the sheep recover Avithout any special treatment beyond a 
warm linseed mash given a few times. In severe cases the sheep 
loses appetite, the mouth is l)ot and dry, the head is hot, and the 
muzzle is dry ancT turned up at the corners, as is seen especially 
in sheep when seriously diseased and suliering. The cough soon 
becomes hard, dry, and like barking of a dog. The sick animal 
hangs its head and seems to be drov/sy, or lies with the head on 
its flank, as if asleep. 

The treatment should be to give five drops of tincture of 
ac-onite for a full grown sheep, half as much to a yearling, three 
times in a day. The sheep should be kept in a shaded, clean, airy 
building, and given warm linseed gruel, or sloppy bran mashes. 
Four drams of sweet spirits of niter have been found useful, given 
every three or four hours. When a white discharge from the nose 
occurs, and the heat of the body subsides, the tonic mixture 
should be given twice daily, until the appetite returns; when 
soft mashes and the best clover hay with a few sliced roots will 
be advisable for the food. Overfeeding is to be avoided, and mod- 
erate quantities only of the best kinds are to be fed. Tlie drink 
may be thin gruel with a little salt added, 

CARBUNCULAR ERYSIPELAS. 

This disease much resembles anthrax, and frequently goes by 
one of its common names as black leg, or black quarter. It dif- 
fers, however, in some important points, especially in its conta- 
gious character and its conimunieability to mankind. It, as also 
does that form of anthrax already described, attacks the finest 
lambs in the flock, and these die suddenh' without notice of the 
shepherd. A few hours is the common time in which death hap- 
pens, but some patients linger for two days. The first symptom is 
lameness in one leg, fore or hind. If the animal is examined 
the limb on this quarter will be found swollen, and red, and in- 
flamed. On pressure of the flesh the crackling sound of the gas 
escaping from the already putrid flesh, and gathered in the tis- 
sues, is heard. Indeed the same appearances seen in anthrax are 
conspicuous in this diseas^e, the only difi'erence being in the deadly 
contagiousness of this disease, which is often communicated to 
those persons who may handle the carcass of a dead sheep, or the 
w^ool stripped from the body of one. This is the deadly disease 
known as the wool-sorters' disease, Avhich infects those persons 
w^ho handle the wool stripped from infected carcasses. 

The first symptom noticed is the shivering of the sick sheep. 
The blood in this form is charged with uncountable numbers 
of deadly germs, to Avhich the malignantly contagious nature of 
the disease is due, and is in much the same condition as in an- 
thrax; thick, tarry, and black. Blackened tumors appear on the 
bare parts of the body and the belly is distended with diffused 
serum, which surrounds the intestines, and in places escapes 
througb the. skin as a yellow liquid. Breathing is heavy and 
labored, and a fetid discharge escapes from the nose. 

Treatment is unavailing. The sick animals will be worthless 



338 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

if they should recover, which sometimes happens, if the poison 
escapes outwardly by effusion; but it leaves them disabled, and 
weak and useless to the shepherd. • 

As the disease is contagious it is best to kill and bury the sick 
animal immediately, out of reach of dogs, which may spread the 
poison by dying by its effects, and leaving their dead bodies on 
the range or pasture. Then preventive measures should be under- 
taken. Rich, wet pastures should be drained; overflowed lands 
should be avoided; pure water only used for the flock; and the 
rank young pastures of the Spring should be used for an hour or 
two only in the day until the excessive succulence of it disappears. 
In the same way coarse, innutritions herbage in the Fall should 
be avoided, as also pasturing on swampy lands, at that time of 
the year. 

DIARRHEA— WHITE SCOUR OF LAMBS. 

This disease is rather an indication of a malady than a disease 
itself. It is the manifestation of a condition of the digestive 
organs by which the food is not digested, and is discharged in an 
offensive condition, which is the result of the irritation it exerts 
on the bowels. It is also one of the symptoms of disorder of the 
liver. But it exists mostly as the effect of the food on the system. 
Inferior and indigestible food, as well as those kinds that are too 
rich in one special element — unbalanced it is termed^ — and which 
are thrown off in this abnormal manner, are the most frequent 
causes. 

It happens also as a result of parasites in the intestines, in- 
cluding the liver in this category. Also as a result of the over 
rich and indigestible character of the milk of a highly fed ewe. In- 
deed in the ewes any injurious element of the food or diseased 
product of the system is carried off by the milk, and thus this 
scour of lambs is really an indication of something wrong with 
the ewe. It is also a symptom of several special diseases. Thus, 
its treatment depends on a full acquaintance with the special cir- 
cumstances of each case. The symptoms are too well known to 
need repetition. The worst cases are those in lambs through 
whom the ewe's milk passes almost unchanged, for this implies 
starvation, and an early death, unless the disease is checked imme- 
diately. . .11 r i-i 

* In this case the eAve is to be treated, for it is the milk of the 
ewes which irritates the bowels of the lambs. It is not desirab e 
to give astringent medicines, as the saying is, to dry up the in- 
valid. This makes matters worse, often. A soft, emollient, soot^h- 
ing laxative given to the lamb, to act on the inflamed intestines, 
and an altreative given to tbe ewe will be the most effective 
treatment. Astringents are to be avoided. Mild healing laxa- 
tives and tonics are indicated, such as the following: 

Epsom salts | ounces. 

Carbonate of soda • g arams. 

Ground p;inger ^ drams. 

Warm thin gruel V^^ Pi^*^- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 33<j 



IS 



It may be well to add two teaspoonfuls of whisky to th.» 
medicine, given twice in twenty-four hours. For the lamb one-half 
of this is sufficient. 

A cordial mixture as the following is excellent for a ewe, if 
none of those ready prepared are on hand: 

Tincture of rhubarb 1 ounce 

Tincture of cardoxnoms " ' 1 ounce 

Carbonate of soda 1 dram 

Hot water or gruel ....2 ounces. 

Add one teaspoonful of glycerine. 

CATARRH-SIMPLE AND MALIGNANT. 

No other animal is so subject to inflammation of the nasiil mem- 
branes and those of the throat and bronchial tubes, as the sheep. 
The discharge from the nose prevails in every flock more or less, 
and while it is a symptom of several diseases, yet it is a special 
disorder of the mucous membranes, which at times is serious, 
as leading to more troublesome disorders. 

Simple catarrh appears as a more or less copious discharge 
from the nostrils, which are inflamed, either as a result of a cold 
due to exposure to rains or chilling winds, or from any inflamma- 
tory .state of the system. It is often a prelude to inflammation 
of the lungs or influenza, and unless treated without delay it is 
apt to lead to these more troublesome disorders. It is therefore 
wase to take immediate measures to put a stop to it while it is 
easy to do so. 

The symptoms are sneezing, redness of the eyes, and weeping; 
at first the nose is dry and rather hot, but soon a thin, Avatery 
fluid escapes, w^hich gradually becomes thick and adherent, form- 
ing scales 001 the edges of the nasal pa-^^sages. This later di^x•halge 
is yellowish white and has a purulent appearance. 

The treatment is as follows: In ordinary and mild cases 
shelter in a dry, clean, airy shed with a few meals of warm bran 
and linseed mash, for a few days, together M-ith the application 
of this powder blown into the nostrils several times a day will 
usually afford complete relief: Take equal parts of finely pow- 
dered sub-nitrate of bismuth, and gum Arabic, and mix them. 
As much of this poAvder as Avill lie on a dime is blown into the 
nostrils tAvice a day through a quill. Also give the tonic mixture 
in the mash mentioned. 

If neglected this disorder may be apt to result in the epi- 
zootic form, AA'hich is much more serious. This disease consists 
of a purulent inflammation of the lining membrane of the nasal 
passages, and throat, sometimes passing into the stomach and 
boAvels, ending in inflammation of these organs. If the cause of 
this disease is known, it is under only the most certain circum- 
stances, for it is apt to occur in the best regulated flocks under 
certain conditions of the weather. It is certain that its extensiA^e 
appearance is due to some pircA-ailing general sudden change from 
AA-arm to cold, or the reA-erse; to chilling Avinds, and in flocks that 
are unsheltered, or confined in ill-ventilated bams; AA'hether the 



340 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

ventilation be in excess or insufficient the result may be the 
same. Mr. Randall, in his time, alleged— doubtless then very 
truly— that this disorder was more fatal to the flocks than all 
other maladies combined. But we have improved since that day 
in our general better care of the sheep; and we cannot now say 
that this disease ever destroys forty or fifty per cent of the 
flocks, as in Mr. Randall's time, forty years ago. 

The symptoms are, first, a thin, watery, acrid discharge from 
the nostrils. This alone is sufficient to account for the following 
inflammatory developments; for this discharge soon causes severe 
soreness of the skin, leading to the following inflammation which 
supervenes. With this discharge there is weeping of the eyes, 
and redness and evident sorenesss. The animal droops and is dis- 
inclined to move, but stands listlessly about, neither eating nor 
drinking. There is no cough, but evident increasing weakness, 
while the discharge, at first thin, becomes thick and glutinous, 
and at times is tinged with blood. These symptoms increase 
in severity until the sheep becomes greatly prostrated and 
emaciated. The eyes then are partly closed and the lids adhere 
in consequence of the glutinous discharge. The breathing is 
labored and difficult. Sheep in good condition are not disturbed 
as to the action of the bowels, but those that are poor suffer 
greatly from dysentery. The dung is mixed with blood and is 
voided with much pain. In ten days the sufferer dies. After 
death the lining membranes of the nose and nasal cavities of the 
head are found to be highly inflamed and often ulcerated. 

Treatment is always unsatisfactory. Either fhe patient dies, 
or slowly recovers, greatly depressed; and next to worthless for 
the future. The most satisfactory treatment consists of giving 
concentrated food of the most nourishing and easily digestible 
kinds; such as gruels, mashes, and thin mucilaginous drinks, 
with the tonic mixture added in the proportions given. No bleed- 
ing, or weakening purgatives, are to be used. Dry and warm, 
but unchanging temperature is indispensable. To maintain the 
strength of the patient in this Avay is the only hopeful treatment. 
Mr. Randall advises the following medicine which he 
found entirely satisfactory when taken in the early stage of the 
disease: 

Corrosive sublimate 8 grains. 

Rhubarb 1 ounce. 

Ground ginger and gentian each 2 ounces. 

Simmer the three last in one quart of water, for fifteen min- 
utes; strain and add the first. Give two tablespoonfuls twice a 
day. The experience of the author has been that the most careful 
nursing to sustain the strength is the most effective, with the use 
of the tonic mixture. 

COLIC OR BELLY ACHE. 

This disease is due to the fermentation of food in the stom- 
ach. It exists in the first stomach, the rumen. It is akin to the 
well known bloating of cattle. It is due to the over eating of sue- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 341 

culent gi-een fodder, esi)ecially when it is wet or covered with 
host. ]\lusty dry food is uiiotlier frequent cause of it. Sometimes 
it occurs througli a constitutiomil or accidental difiicuity of diges- 
tion. 

The symptoms are a swelling of the lielly on the left side, 
occurring soon after eating. Thie breathing is oppiessed by reason 
of the pressure of the distended stomach on the Jungs. Tlie bowels 
are inactive and the eyes have a \vild expression, due to the 
severe pain, and the sheep moans at every movement. 

The only effective treatment is to relieve the pressure on the 
stomach by puncturing the wall of it with t..e trochar, thus let- 
tiag the accumulated gas escape. If it is possible for the animal 
to swallow, a dose of one-half ounce of carbonate of ammonia 
will afford relief in cases when the trochar is not at hand. 
But it is quite safe to puncture the stomach on the left side 
at a point at the center of a triangle of equal sides about four 
inches each way from the hip bone, in a line below the kidneys, 
and to a point below it where the sides of the triangle will meet. 
A small pen knife will be a safe instrument to use. A quill tied 
around with a cord at one end, to prevent it from slipping in 
the wound, is inserted to keep the wound open while the gas is 
escaping. 

Relief is often found in the use of the following medicine 
given by the mouth: 

Ground mustard y^ teaspoonf ul. 

Whisky 1 ounce. 

Mix and give in a small quantity of warm water. Repeat 
when needed. 

FOOT ROT. 

This disease of the sheep's foot is mostly prevalent on wet, 
marshy lands, by which the horn of the foot is softened and the 
skin between the toes is chafed and worn, until the lamina of the 
foot — which connect the horn to the fleshy interior and the 
vascular sensitive tissue, through which the veins and arteries 
run — become inflamed, and exude purulent matter. These lamina 
being inoculated Avith fungoid germs existing in the infected soil, 
are decomposed by the action of these germs, and the interior of 
the foot rots away; after which the horn separates and decays. 
The decaying horn produces a peculiar fetid odor by Avhioh this 
disease may be recognized at some distance from where a diseased 
flock is pasturing. 

The sheep's foot is provided with a self-lubricating apparatus 
placed in the cleft of the hoof, known as the interungulate gland; 
and a canal which leads from it to the outer surface between the 
toes. This gland secrets a lubricating fluid which softens the 
skin, and prevents chafing. It is readily perceived how the stop- 
page of this canal should induce chafing by the grinding action 
of the wet mud, or sand and gravel, on this soft skin between the 
toes. And equally how soon the inner parts of the foot may 
become raw and inflamed, and offer the most favorable oppor- 



34S 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



tunity for infection by the special germ existing in the decaying 
s^il. This is the history of this disease which is exceedingly 
troublesome once it makes a start on a pasture and in a flock. 

Prevention is obvious. Drain wet pastures. Avoid feeding 
sheep on wet, muddy lands. And carefully inspect the feet, at 
short intervals, paring the under curved walls which turn under 




Fig. 23.— Early Stage of Foot-Rot. 



Fig. 24.— Advanced Foot-Rot. 



the sole, and gather the offending matter. When the disease 
occurs, carefully dress the sores with any prepared hoof ointment, 
after washing them in a solution of one pound of sulphate of cop- 
per in 5 gallons of water, and in the same proportion as one 
ounce to 1^ quarts of water. An excellent ointment for the feet so 
diseased is made in this way: Melt four parts of Burgundy pitch, 
add one part of vaseline, one part of turpentine, and one part of 
acetate of copper finely powdered, and stir until cool. Apply this 
to the pores. Keep the sheep on clean pasture until recovery. 

It will be obvious that this treatment is wholly inadmissible 
in large flocks. Some more convenient method is used in these 
cases. A suitable arrangement is made by which the flock may 
be passed through the curative antiseptic preparation placed in a 
trough of suitable size, in. much the same manner in Avhich sheep 
are dipped as a preventive and cure for the scab, as will be de- 
scribed hereafter under the appropriate heading. The trough should 
have sufficient length to thoroughly introduce the disinfecting 
liquid, which is two inches deep in the trough. The flock is first 
driven up or do\^^l a stream of clear water, or the feet are pre- 
pared by paring off the diseased horn so that the disinfecting 
fluid may penetrate to every part of the feet. This operation is 
most convenientlj^ performed at the shearing time, and is then in- 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 343 

dispensable iur safety if the least evidence of the disease is notieed 
in the Hock. And as each sheep is shorn it is imniediateiv i)assed 
through the disinfecting liquid in tiie manner mentioned. Indeed 
this IS the time \vhen the sheep should he dipped for the scab 
disease, and all three operations are thus ea.sily and cheaply per- 
formed by any suitable arrangement by which the flocks may be 
passed through each in succession. 

As this disease is extremely virulent, a close watch should be 
kept for its appearance, and any sheep going on its knees should 
be immediately caught and operated on. Prevention, as in the 
equally serious disorder of the scab, iis imperative, as the cheapest 
and only practicable means of avoiding enormous trouble in a 
large flock of sheep. It is also a wise precaution to closely exam- 
ine the feet of any purchased sheep, especially tho.-e which have 
been transported on the railroads, in the common sheep cars, 
before they are turned out into a flock. There is no more danger- 
ous possibility of infection than this, and as to be safe is better 
than to be sorry, the importance of this precaution cannot be 
overestimated. 

There are several kinds of preparations in use for this pur- 
pose, but the sulphate of copper solution is generally esteemed 
to be the most effective. This may be prepared as follows: Five 
pounds of the sulphate of copper are dissolved in five gallons of 
water, six pounds of fresh lime are slaked in four gallons of water, 
the two liquids are strained into a cask and diluted to twenty 
gallons. This is not so caustic as the sulphate alone, but is 
equally effective. 

IMPACTION OF THE STOMACH. 

Sheep are not so subject to this disease as cattle are, but at 
times they will overgorge themselves, as on fresh clover, covered 
with early frost, and by the chilling of the stomach digestion 
is prevented and fermentation occurs. This causes a large quan- 
tity of carbonic acid gas to form in the stomach and the pres- 
sure of it, closing the openings of the stomach at both its ex- 
tremities, great suffering ensues. This occurrence obviously inter- 
feres with the giving of any relief by medicine, and the only 
recourse is to an operation by which the stomach is pierced and 
the collected gas. is let out. The rig'ht spot for this opening 
is at the center of a triangle the base of which is about foiir 
inches long in a sheep, and runs along the body sufficiently low 
to avoid the kidneys, and the other two sides meet at a point 
directly below the middle of the base. 'The puncture is made 
bj' means of a sharp-pointed instniment called a trochar. fitting in 
a tube called a canula. The part of the body indicated is pierced 
with this instrument, which is then drawn out leaving the eanu'a 
or tube in the opening. The gas thus escapes, and the need-d 
medicine is poured into the stomach (the rumen) through the 
tube, which is furnished with a cup-like top for this purpose. 
This medicine consists of one di'am of aromatic spirits of am- 
monia, followed in one hour by two ounces of raw linseed oil. 



344 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

After recovery, careful feeding is necessary, the tonic mixture 
previously mentioned at the outset of this chapter being given. 
The Avound made heals quickly, but it is well to. shave off the 
hair and apply a tar plaster over it and keep it on for a few 
days. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Of this serious disease there are two forms. One is inflamma- 
tion of the covering membrane of the brain— the meninges— 
(whence the common name of this disease meningitis), and the 
other is inflammation of the substance of the brain itself. There 
is a special diflerence between these two forms of the disease. 
The former is characterized by more violent symptoms as delirium, 
violent movements, pawing, champing of the mouth, and general 
convulsions. In the latter the animal is dull and stupid, and in- 
able to move the limbs. In both cases there is trembling of the 
body, high temperature, increased and hard pulse, quick breath- 
ing, red eyes, glaring as by nervous excitement. The sick animal 
bores its head against some obstacle, or lies on the haunches, or 
rests against any support that may be convenient. The sheep 
bleats during the period of excitement, at other tiiiies resting 
in a condition of stupor. The causes are mostly sudden and seri- 
ous changes of temperature; exposure to severe weather, heat or 
cold equally; over exertion; indigestion of some standing, or sud- 
den over-loading of the stomach with rich food. Feeding on 
smutty or ergotted grain or fodder produces this disease by the 
effect of the special poisonous principle knoAvn as ergotine, which 
has an injurious effect on the nervous system in this way. 

The treatment consists of the application of ice-cold water 
to the head and neck; injections of turpentine, two drams of it 
mixed with sweet oil, also a strong purgative, as four ounces of 
Epsom salts, with six drops of croton oil added to the solution, 
and shaken up with it. This is followed in a few hours by half 
dram doses of bromide of potassium given every three hours. 
The patient is kept in an airy stable free from all disturbance, 
as this leads to renewed excitement. This treatment applies to 
both forms of the disease. After recovery the patient is to be 
well fed, but with only the most easily digestible food, given in 
small quantities, at short intervals until full recovery. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE SPINAL CORD— MYELITIS. 

This disease also has two forms, the ordinary sporadic kind, 
which is due to distinct and special local causes; and the enzootic 
form, which at times prevails extensively over a large terri- 
tory, being due to causes which ai-e generally prevalent. It is 
known as myelitis, and consists of inflammation of the covering 
of the great nerve known as the spinal cord, this outer covering 
being known as is that of the brain, as meninges; whence is de- 
rived the full name of the disease — spinal meningitis. 

It also goes by the name of myelitis, and is extremely fre- 
quent in certain localities in which some special conditions exist 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



345 




that are not well understood, but are l>elieved to consist of some 
unfavorable qualities of the Avatev and the herbage. It i.s kiu)wn 
by English and Scotch shepherds as the louping ill, or hydro- 
rachitis; fi'om which i.s derived the comnKUi tenn rickets; applied 
to young animals affected by Aveakness of the hind limbs. See 
fig. 25. 

The common form is similar to inflammation of the brain 
in its effects on the animal, and similar symptoms are perceived. 
These are pai'oxysms of convul&ed movements; a high temper- 
turea; a rapid pulse and breathing. These finally end in paralysis 

of the hind parts, so tiiat the 
young animals, which are mostly 
subject to this disorder, drag their 
hind limbs along without ability 
to move them. There is a great 
tenderness along the spine, and 
the animal shrinks when the 
spine is pressed. If the patient 
is able to stand is is only in a 
staggering way, and it rests its 
Fig. 25.-Myelitis. head against any support within 

reach. 
These symptoms are greatly increased in the enzootic form. 
Lambs are frequently born diseased, and are paralyzed from their 
birth. Others are attacked later, and after a time up to a year 
and a half old. The old sheep are rarely subject to the disease. 
The lamb in some ins?tances has the head and neck drawn to one 
side othere exhibit spasmodic movements by which they seem to 
be endeavoring to leap, using, however, only their forelegs. From 
this svmptom the Iqcal name of louping or leaping ill or disease is 
given^ But mostly the lamb lies half reclining on the ground and 
drags its hind parts along as shown in the illustration, fig. 2o. 

The causes seem to include among others generally applicable 
to this class of diseases, a certain distinct unwholesome quality 
in the herbage, thought to be due to the geological character of 
the soil, bv which excessive succulence ifS^^e" *«.. ^t, leading 
to chronic indigestion and mal-nutrition. This is believed to be 
the case, for the reason that the disease may prevad extensively 
and severely in some locality which may be distmctly ser>arat.ed 
from adjoining lands of a different geological origin. It is w_e'l 
known that a limestone soil is productive of mcreased fertiM> 
and luxuriance of the pastures or of grown f ^^f ^f J;^^,"^,^: 
know that anv seriously unbalanced character of the food does 
affect the nen-ous svstem more or less disastrously. 

This is all the more to be considered as being well founded 
although we have no satisfactory certainty o it by the spec 1 
accompanving svmptoms which are noticed at t^^/^^^^] ^tn^. 
diseaT As for instance, there is a depraved appebte. and a vora- 
cious desire for coarse innutritions Y'.cT^"^^^^^ are 



greedily devoured and swallc 



346 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



but torn eagerly from the ground, and the roots with adhering 
soil is swallowed witli avidity. But when the disease is ad- 
vanced, appetite fails; the eyes stare wildly; the temperature is 
lower than that of a healthy animal, pointing to want of sup- 
port to the vital functions; and this reacting on the brain and the 
principal nei-ve proceeding from it, produces all the symptoms 
which mark this disease. 

This being the case, the treatment calls for prevention rather 
than curative measures. The causes mentioned are to be avoided, 
and the ewes must be duly nourished with the best and most 
digestible food before the lambs are about to be dropped; indeed 
from the period of conception. This is to be thought of in all 
these localities where the disease has prevailed previously; and 
with the drainage of wet pastures, and the dressing of the lands 
under feeding crops with rich stimulating manures, changed for 
the use of such special fertilizers as will tend to the growth of 
Avholesome feed. Supei-phosphate of lime is especially useful in 
this respect, and a dressing of the feeding crops or pastures with 
salt has been found useful in clearing the land of this tendency 
to this disease. 

Treatment in all cases calls for the use of nerve sedatives 
ah well as cooling laxatives. Epsom salts are to be given in full 
doses, one to two ounces for a lamb, and twice as much for a ewe. 
Turpentine in two dram doses acts favorably o^n the kidneys, and 
as an anti-spasmodic. After these have been given, bromide of po- 
tassium is to be given in one dram doses for a yearling, and less 
in proportion for a lamb as its age may call for. Good nursing 
is efficacious in support of the weakened system, and after recov- 
ery the tonic mixture will be useful in aiding digestion, and the 
due assimilation of the food. 

PLEURISY— INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING 
MET^IBRANE OF THE CHEST. 

This disease is most common in cold, windy, exposed locaM- 
ties, and chiefly among flocks on the range and without shelter. 
It frequently accompanies an attack of rheumatism in which 
the joints are involved, and severe lameness is the prevailing 
symptom. . 

The symptoms are shivering, uneasy movements, pawing the 
ground, turning the head to the flank, general uneasiness— the 
sheep lying down and rising alternately with frequent mtermis- 
sion The pulse is rapid and the breathing hurried, with short 
inspirations suddenly checked, while the inspiration is slow and 
prolonged At every breath the abdomen moves and the head is 
held down, the eyes are half closed, and a hacking cough occurs. 
Appetite and rumination are both suspended and the nose is dry. 
Lameness and stiffness of the joints due to the accompanying 
rheumatism are prominent. This disease terminates m hydro- 
thorax, or the effusion of semm in the chest. These symptoms 
continue for about four or five days, when they gradually change 
to those resulting from the accumulated serum m the chest 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. iUl 

Then the belly becomes swollen, and a peculiar drawing in of thti 
nostrils occurs. In this condition of the disease the manner of 
breatl'.ing is reversed; the inspirations being long and irregular, 
while the expiration is checked and occurs with difHculty. 'Ihe 
animal now stands with legs wide apart, the head is extended, 
and the neck is held low; the eyes are staring; the pulse is im- 
perceptible; the limbs, nose and ears are cold; a rattling .sound 
accompanies the breathing; the animal totters and falls back- 
wards, if the head is raised, but headlong otherwise, and dies 
struggling. 

On opening the body the chest is found filled with serum, 
the substance of the lungs is hard and red, and the tissue is 
dull in color and sinks in Avater. 

The treatment to be taken as soon as the rattling sound is 
heard in the breathing, is to give the following: 

Saltpetre 1 dram. 

Camphor H dram. 

Nitric ether 14 ounce. 

Dissolve the camphor in the ether, and add half a pint of 
oatmeal gruel strained. Then pow^der the saltpeter, and add it 
to the gruel. The chest should be w^ell rubbed with mustard 
made into a thin paste w-ith hot water, and a skin saturated 
with hot water should be tied around the body immediately back 
of the fore legs. When the presence of the serum in the cavity 
of tbe chest is certainly known by the occurrence of the symptoms 
mentioned, give the following in a drench of warm gruel: 

Powdered digitalis 10 grains. 

Saltpeter 1 dram. 

is; itric ether 2 drams. 

Mix; add to the gruel; and give it three times a day. 
Two drams of turpentine are given alternately with the above, 
all of which should be continued for two days. As soon as the 
kidneys respond to this treatment, give the following: 

Sulphate of iron V^ dram. 

Alum H dram. 

Infusion of quassia 1 ounce. 

To tap the chest Avith the trochar previously described and 
drawing off the liquid through the canula, will be of great service. 
As soon as recovery has begun give the tonic mixture. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER-MAM:\IITIS-GARGE'i'. 

This disease is frequent in w^ell fed flocks, and among ewes 
in high condition. It also at times occurs by reason of the excite- 
ment of the circulation incident to the birth of the lamb, leading 
to inflammation of the Aveakened glands. It is frequently the 
case that the first milk by reason of its glutinous character may 
close the duct of the teats, thus producing a congested condition 
by Avhich inflammation is caused. Of course this trouble means 
the death of the newly bom lamb for want of its due nourish- 
ment. 

It is a disease to be prevented by timely attention, for an 



B48 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

attack of inflaniniation necessarily means stoppage of the milk, 
and if for only a short time the lamb is starved, or much labor 
is thrown on the shepherd. And this occuring at the busiest time 
of the year is a serious disturbance of the ordinary routine in a 
flock at the lambing season. 

The ewes should be examined as soon as the lamb is dropped, 
and the condition of the udder and the teats known. It is a 
small matter as compared with the result, which is not only the 
saving of a lamb but the welfare or future value of the ewe. 
For once the udder is in this condition of inflammation, it is an 
even chance if the ewe can be restored to usefulness for the 
future. There is no danger if the milk will appear on pressure 
of the teats. If not, the opening of each teat is to be carefully 
cleaned from accumulated gluey matter by washing with warm 
water, and the insertion of the point of a small syringe by which 
a few drops of warm solution of saleratus or carbonate of soda 
may be injected. This dissolves any hardened milk, and leaves 
a free course for the milk for the lamb at its first effort to suck. 
If this is not sufficient, and the teat appears to need it, a smooth 
whalebone probe, well oiled, should be inserted with care and 
gentleness to open the milk duct. If the udder appears to be at 
all inflamed, it Avill be advisable to inject a little more of the 
soda solution, adding a little glycerine. The udder should be 
rubbed gently with vaseline to which is added one fourth pai't of 
camphorated spirit, and the same of ammonia, at least twice 
a day. 

PNEUMONIA— INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

This disease differs from pleurisy in being seated in the sub- 
nce of the lungs. The difference may be more fully explained 
in this way. The cavity of the body within the short ribs, is 
commonly called the chest. It contains the lungs and the heart, 
and is separated from the abdomen by a tough strong fibrous 
membrane known as the diaphragm. This is elastic, and as the 
lungs are inflated by the inspiration of the breath it gives way, 
returning to its original position on the expiration of the breath- 
The Avhole interior of this cavity is lined wdth a serous mem 
brane, covering the Avails of it up to the entrance into it of the 
wind pipe and the esophagus, closing these m into the space of 
the chest, and covering them as aacII, and also the lungs This 
membrane is called the pleura, and is the seat of the disease 
known as pleurisy. This membrane-the pleura-is m fact like 
a sac doubled into itself and enclosing those vital organs which 
are seated in the cavity of the chest. Inflammation of this mem- 
brane is called pleurisy; that of the lungs itself its substance m 
fact, is called pneumonia. This disease has the same common 
cause as bronchitis and pleurisy; but it is more common than these, 
and has greater tendenev to relapse and terminate fatally by the 
hardening and solidifying of the tissue, so that expansion neces- 
sary to the inflation of the lungs in the air breathed, and the 
' emptying of them of the air expired by contraction, can no 



DISEASES OP SHEEP. M\) 

longer go 0.1, and of course the animal dies for want of air and 
the purifying of the blood by it, as is explained in the chapter 
devoted to the anatomy of the sheep. 

The symptoms of this disease are sufhcieu'tly well marked to 
afford certain indications of its existence and to distinguisli it 
from pleurisy. They are dullness, stiffness, a rough, harsh Ueece, 
and a fit of severe shivering. The skin soon becomes dry, hot 
and shrunken on the body; the eyes, li{)s, and inside of the ears 
are red; the nostrils are drawn in, and there is a short cough, 
suppressed by efiort to avoid the severe pain caused by the action 
of the lungs thus induced. The mouth is hot and clammy, there 
is a sticky discharge from the nose, the head is protruded, the 
breath is short and quick— 40 or more per minute—while the 
effort to breathe is made by the muscles of the abdomen shown by 
the heaving flanks. The pulse is rapid, reaching 70 or 80 per min- 
ute. The bowels are constipated; urine is small and dark in color; 
the sheep is averse to move and lies still. 

On placing the ear to the side of the chest the usual move- 
ment of the breathing is absent wherever the tissue is solidified, 
arid so far it is possible to trace the extent of the disease, ^^'hen 
these symptoms lessen in degree recovery is in progress, and with 
good care the imminent relajose may be avoided. But it is only 
by the best care that this happens, when the disease is checked, 
and convalescence is complete in about fifteen days. Otherwise 
death takes place from the tilth to the twelfth day. 

Treatment is the same as for bronchitis (to which refer). If 
the bowels are constipated two ounces of Epsom salts will be 
useful. It is best given dissolved in warm oatmeal gruel or lin- 
seed tea. This disease is not to be confounded with the epizootic 
and contagious form of pleuro-pneumonia, a disease which occa- 
sionly attacks sheep, but only in its sporatic form, Avhich is not 
contagious, and consists of both pleurisy and pneumonia combined. 
For this combined disease the treatment is similar to that indi- 
cated for simple pneumonia or for pleurisy. 

HERPES— INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN WITH 
BLISTERS. 

This inflammatorj^ condition of the skin is accompanied by 
small vesicles, or blisters, containing serum. These may burst 
and thus form extended sores, the exudation from Avhich mats 
the fleece, and ha^; much the same appearance as the very much 
more serious disease known as the scab. It is indeed frequent^v 
thought to be this dispose, and much unnecessary concern may 
arise in consequence. It is caused by over stimulating food, 
especially over rich in the protein elements, such as cotton seed 
meal, or the linseed oil meals. Exposure to continued wet 
weather after shearing, is productive of this condition of the skin. 

The treatment is to give four ounces of Epsom salts, repeated 
the seeond day after. If crusts have formed these may be 
broken and removed by washing w\th warm water and carbolic 
soap, but care is to be taken not to injure the tender skin under 



350 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

these crusts so as to cause bleeding. It is well to eoak the scabs 
with oil before washing; and to repeat the washing until the 
crusts may be removed without leaving a sore. If the skin itches, 
so that the sheep bites itself, the inflamed patches may be washed 
with water slightly acidulated by sulphuric acid; a few drops to 
a quart of water is sufficient. 

DISEASES OF THE I'ENIS. 

The ram is subject to diseases of the penis which may easily 
destroy its value for service in the flock. These are first: 

Inflammation of this organ which may 1)3 simple or cancerous. 
The former is treated by a few doses of four ounces of Epsom salts 
and injection into the sheath of solution of chlorate of potash. 
This may be injected by means of a syringe or a glass tube with 
a rubber cap on the end by compression, of which when the tube 
is inserted in the solution, the release causes the fluid to be drawn 
up, and pref-sure on the cap or bulb, of course ejects the fluid 
with considerable force. It may be well before applying this 
solution to wash the passage with Avarm water with a few drops 
of carbolic acid in it, or with carbolic soap to dissolve and remove 
the coating of pus on the diseased parts. If the disease is can- 
cerous the animal should be turned on its back and the organ 
withdrawn and the diseased spots touched with solution of nitrate 
of silver. This destroys the fungous groAvths after which the 
chlorate of potash solution will complete the cure. 

Sometimes the ram by hard ser\^ice contracts this cancerous 
form of the disease which he communicates to the ewes and these 
suffer from a similar inflammation of the vaginal passage. This is to 
be treated in a similar way but using a slender elastic rod of whale- 
bone with a soft sponge fastened securely to one end. This is 
dipped into the solution of chlorate of potash and after washing 
out the part with warm water and carbolic soap, it is passed into 
the vaginal passage until the diseased membrane is well washed 
with the solution. 

PARTURITION FEVER IN EWES. 

Ewes are sometimes liable to a serious disease of the blood, 
consequent on the disturbance of the circulation due to the sep- 
aration of the lamb from the dam. It is to be considered that in 
its fetal life the lamb is supplied with blood for its life and 
growth from the dam. After birth this leaves an excess of blood 
to circulate in the ewe, and if she is in a plethoric condition this 
increased circulation is a source of danger to her, and may be 
productive of what is known as parturition fever. This is all 
the more likely to happen with full fed ewes, especially if they 
are on a rich young pasture. 

The symptoms occur on or about the second or third day after 
the birth of the lamb. Tliey consist of enlarged flank; a staring 
wild appearance of the eyes; constipation; and deficient urine, 
Avhich has a deep color and an unusually strong sharp odor. 
The ewe pants, strains, and the hind parts appear inflamed, 
swollen and red, and are hot to the hand. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 851 

Afterwards they become deep red, then puriJle, and finally 
black in color. As the disease advances, unless improvement 
occurs, the ewe becomes exhausted and dies in a comatose con- 
dition, due to the excessive pressure of blood on the brain. 

The womb is found on examination to be inflamed, patchy, 
and even gangrened, and black and decomposed. The whole 
system is congested and full of blood, the heart especially so. 
The womb is highly inflamed and the veins often contain pus 
instead of blood. As this disease is apt to affect other ewes 
in the flock, the first one dead should be examined for cer- 
tainty as to the disorder, so that preventive measures may be 
taken if required to save others. These are to give a copious 
laxative (Epsom salts) to ^e ewe; four ounces will not be too 
much. Following this, give tincture of aconite in doses of five 
drops repeated every six hours. Copious bleeding from the vein 
on the face just below the eye is useful to relieve the conj-^stion. 
Fnjeotions of wami soapy water are desirable to re'ievi? the bowel-. 
After these remedies are used for 24 hours give the tonic mixture 
in warm gruel three times a day. 

POISONING. 

A sheep is a foolish animal, and is as apt to eat injurious 
stuff as to choose good food. And as there are many poisonous 
plants that sheep come in the way of, and will eat readily, cau- 
tion is to be observed to destroy them or keep the sheep from 
them, and it is well to be prepared to take the right means, and 
have in readiness the right remedies, to prevent losses in tnis way. 
The most prevalent and deadly plant of this kind is that member 
of the heath, family known as the narrow leaved kalmia (Kaimia 
Angustifolia) or commonly "sheeps laurel," and "lamb kill." 
Indeed there are several plants of this heath family that are 
poisonous. The rhododendron is equally virulent with the laurel.^, 
of which the broad-leaved species (Kalmia latifolia) is a danger- 
ous as. the narrow leaved species. Some of the huckleberry 
tribe are fatal, as well as several others. Indeed it is quite prob- 
able that all this family of plants are alike in this respect. The 
so-called cow-parsnip and some other plants of the Umbellifera 
family, to which this wild parsnip belongs, are even more deadly 
than the heaths. Some plants, really not poisonous, are injurious, 
if not fatal, in their effects, not on account of any poisonous 
character but only because of their indigestibility. Such are the 
leaves of the mangel or field beet, when groAvn on rich soil; the" 
common holj^hock, and the common marsh malloAv; so with oak 
leaves and acorns, for these are all without any ill effects except- 
ing when eaten in large quantities: and the symptoms are then all 
those of acute indigestion. Acorns and other mast are really 
valuable food, and thousands of sheep fatten on these fitiits of 
forest trees late in the year, and during the early wdnter months 
without any ill effects being resented. 

In the far West, and as far as California, the so-called loco- 
weed (Astragalus mollismus) also known as crazyweed and some 



852 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



other plants are poisonous to sheep, as well as other animals, 
but not deadly in effect, merely producing narcotic results, and 
acting on the brain to produce actual temporary insanity. 

The worst of all these are the various members of the heath 
tribe above referred to. These affect the brain in such a way as 
to cause loss of sight, inability to SAvallow, and consequent pro- 




FiG. 26.— Loco Weed. 

fuse salivation. Animals dying after eating largely of these 
leaves and twigs are found to have the brain extensively con- 
gested, the heart is filled with venous blood, and all the symp- 
toms of ordinary apoplexy are seen. The author in an experiment 
made to test the precise action of the leaves of the narrow laurel, 
eat a few of them. In a few minutes considerable nausea, giddi- 
ness, clouded vision occurred; the eyes being at times unaffected 
by light, and the limbs were greatly disturbed and stiff in their 
movements. Strong coffee relieved the nervous disorder in a 
short time; while a liberal dose of castor oil relieved the stomach 
and bowels. This treatment has been effective in every case for 
the sheep when taken in time, and since then there has not been 
a fatal case of poisoning where this treatment has been adopied. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 353 

From the nature of the alkaloid existing in the crazyweed of the 
Western plains, it is we think beyond question tiiat this same 
treatment will be useful as an antidote to the effects of this 
weed. 

The leaves of the yew tree are exceedingly deadly in their 
effects, and while we have none of this kind among our native 
trees, yet in other countries, where it is cultivated or grown in 
hedges, or indeed for hedges, sheep should not be permitted to 
browse on them or eat the clippings of the limbs. 

Gases of poisoning sometimes occur by giving too large doses 
of drugs, the action of which is virulent. Thus the use of salt- 
peter (nitrate of potash in excess; in truth it is rarely called 
for) is apt to do serious injury. So aconite, a deadly poison in 
too large doses, but a useful remedy in many disease« as a seda- 
tive and diaphoretic, allaying neivous excitement and inducing 
perspiration, may be given to excess, carelessly, on account of the 
very small doses required, for a sheep, no more than 3 to 5 drops. 
In such cases immediate ridding to the system of the poison, by 
copious liquid purgatives, is the simplest means of avoiding loss. 
After recovery the tonic mixture should be used, with soft 
mashes or gruels of linseed or oatmeal, or both. When any 
poison is accidentally taken by sheep it will be useful to drench 
the animal with mucilaginous liquid by which the stomach may be 
w^ashed out, and immediately after a dose of castor oil or raw lin- 
seed oil may be given to empty the stomach and bowels. 

PORCUPINE GRASS. 

This grass is quite common on the plains and has been found 
exceedingly injurious to sheep. It is a tall grass with a bunch of 
sharp pointed, speared awns in the head. These have a very 
peculiar character. They are twisted when dry like a corkscrew 
and as they become damp the screw unAvinds, becoming more sp' ''I 
as the weather dries them again. The sharp points penetrate the 
wool and as this spiral unwinds and winds again these points are 
literally screwed into the sheep's skin, penetrating into the flesh 
and even passing into the inside where of course these spears 
do serious mischief, frequently killing the sheep with all the symp- 
toms of a slow, Avasting disease, Avhich is rarely recognized. This 
of course calls for a corresponding watchfulness on the part of 
the shepherd to keep the flocks aAvay from those localities Avhere 
it abounds. When the grass is in floAver it is much like an ostrich 
feather with its soft, silky plumes, under Avhich these awns are to 
be found. 

RED WATER— HAEMATURIA. 

This is a disease distinctly of marshes and wood lands, of 
which the herbage is often acrid and indigestible. There are 
certain Aveeds by A\-hich this disorder is produced, but in general, 
either the AA'hole herbage is innutritions or unAvholesome. or the 
poisonous emanations from the sodden soil makes the blood im- 
pure at the A^ery source— the lungs— Avhere it should naturally be 



354 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

purified and vitalized. It also has one of its causes in the too 
succulent and innutritious crops grown on over-rich damp lands, 
and turnips especially grown on soils of this character— deep black 
vegetable soil— are frequently the cause of attacks of this disease 
of flocks fed on the crops. So the natural growth of wood land 
tends to encourage this disorder, and hence it is commonly known 
as the "woods evil." Tlie disease is especially virulent in the 
early Spring for the reason that the sheep are hungry for fresh 
fodder, and eat too heartily of the indigestible or too laxative 
foods. It seems in its manifestations to be akin to the common 
anthrax, a disease often due to similar causes. The blood is dark, 
there are dullness, weakness, trembling, cold skin, dry mouth, 
loss of appetite, thirst, strong action of the heart; the bowels 
are costive after a period of looseness, the urine is passed with 
suffering, and is dark colored. This color is not due to the mix- 
ture of blood but to failure of the liver to act. Unless improve- 
ment occurs in a few- days the animal dies in a condition of deli- 
rium and severe prostration. 

This is a disease to be prevented by avoiding the cause of it. 
By keeping the sheep off from the over-grown herbage of un- 
wholesome lands, and refraining from feeding, even hay cut on 
such land. The drainage of the wet soil will remove this objec- 
tion to it, and render the crops harmless. 

Treatment should consist of the use of active 'purgatives; 
any of the oils are preferable in this case to saline medicine. 
Olive oil is the best and most effective, after this raw linseed oil 
may be chosen. A quarter of a pint will be a sufficient dose for 
a full gro^^^l sheep. It should be repeated in six hours if it does 
not operate before that time. Twenty grain doses of chlorate of 
potash may be given in gruel three times a day. The standard 
tonic mixture should then be given twice a day. The food should 
be of the best and most easily digested kinds. Decoctions of lin- 
seed or of slippery elm bark; bran mashes, and boiled oats, will 
be desirable. 

REDNESS OF THE EYES— OPHTHALMIA. 

This disease should be treated on the first appearance of it 
or the sight may easily be lost beyond recovery. This indeed is 
not of much account in a sheep, if it is in good condition, for it 
will always make mutton unless it is affected by some wasting 
disease, by which its condition is impaired. But all sheep are 
not necessarily immediate mutton, and a valuable breeding animal 
is not to be considered from this point of view. Eedness of the 
eyes is not to be neglected. Treatment should be immediate. 
The disease is also apt to become epidemic in the flock, for the 
purulent matter flowing from a diseased eye is very apt to con- 
vey the infection to other sheep. 

The cause of the disease should be investigated. There may 
be a chaff or beard or some minute foreign matter causing the 
trouble. If so it is to be removed; and a small pinch of burned 
alum blown into the eye through a quill will quickly restore the 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 355 

eye to comfort and use. If the inflammation has been severe 
two ounces of Epsom salts should be given in gruel and the animal 
kept in the dark for a few days. Frequent bathing of the eyes 
with cold water with a small pinch of sulphate of zinc dissolved 
in it, will be useful. 

SMALL POX OF SHEEP-VARIOLA OVINA. 

This deadly disease, so closely akin to the same disease of 
mankind as to be communicable to those coming in contact with 
diseased sheep, so far has not been known on this side of the 
Atlantic Ocean. But in the importation of sheep for breeding 
from European countries, where it exists to a dangerous extent, 
it is always liable to be introduced into our flocks. A descriptiou 
of the disease is therefore of interest. It is only known as a 
virulently contagious disease, having a period of incubation of four 
or five days in Summer, and ten to fifteen in the Winter. 

The symptoms are loss of appetite, dullness, isolation of the 
sick sheep, and stiffness of the hind part of the body. Trembling 
follows; the bowels become costive; the eyes are red and weep 
copiously; a disc'harge conies from the nose; and the naked parts 
of the body have red patches. These may appear on the belly 
or inside the legs. If they become united— confluent— the result 
will likely be serious. Otherwise the disease passes through the 
usual stages as in cow-pox; that is the eruption exudes a lymph 
which in a short time becomes purulent, then dries, and forms 
crusts which loosen and fall off, at the end of three weeks or a 
month. In this mild form the loss of life may not be over five 
to seven per cent, but when the disease takes on its virulent 
form it destroys at times almost the whole flock. There are 
other serious results even to the mild form of this disease. Ewes 
are prone to abort and lose their lambs; the wool drops off: blind- 
ness occurs; hoofs rot off; and the sheep which sun'ive are fre- 
quently Avrecks not worth saving. The treatment is hardly to 
be recommended. Immediate slaughter and deep burial of the 
diseased carcasses— in short unlimited stamping out of the pestil- 
ence, Avhich being communicable to persons, is and should be the 
only' treatment thought of.^ 

Prevention of it should be the busmess of the general Govern- 
ment but as private enterprise should lead to caution in running 
risks 'of introducing this disease, all concerned should pass all 
imported sheep through a sufficient quarantine before mixmg 
them with the flock. Inoculation is not to be thought of as long 
as the disease is not existing here. 

RETENTION OF THE DUNG IN LAMBS. 
Sometimes it may happen that by the fii^st glutinous dis- 
charge from the bowels of a new born lamb. ^^^ ^""^^^f ,^^^! 



356 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

part with the nose and licking it. But in some cases this is not 
effective, and the shepherd should not fail to inspect the young 
things for the first few days after birth, and if necessary break 
this crust and open the passage. A little vaseline or sweet oil 
applied will prevent a recurrence of this trouble. 

INFLAMMATION OF TESTICLE. 

This disorder is by no means uncommon. It is most common 
in the breeding season, when the ram may be overworked, and 
it is frequently the result of accident. 

The symptoms are quite apparent, being a swelling of the 
glands so that the animal moves with a straddling gait, the tes- 
ticle, or both of them, is enlarged and tender to the touch, and 
is frequently drawn up and let down again. 

The treatment is to give cooling pui'gatives, as Epsom salts, 
in four ounce doses; to foment the scrotum with hot water; 
then applying extract of belladonna or laudanum. If the disease 
occurs in the bresding times of course the ram is to be separated 
from the flock and should not be used again the same season. 

CASTRATION OF TESTICLES. 

The castration of the young rams intended for wethers, is 
sometimes apt to lead to serious results and even the loss of the 
animal operated upon. All risk of this is avoided by performing 
this necessary operation while the lamb is young, and at about 
two or four weeks old. At this time the organs are undeveloped, 
and the operation is a simple one without risk of complications 
by inflammation of the cord, or difficulty of healing of the wound. 

For a lamb of this age, all that is needed is to take the 
animal under the left arm, holding the scrotum with the left hand, 
between the fore finger and the thumb, then with a pair of sharp 
shears cut off the scrotum with its contents. Apply a little finely 
powdered bluestone (sulphate of copper) or a little fine sugar, 
and the business is concluded in less time that this line is written. 

With older animals more care is to be exercised, as the organ 
is developed to a far greater extent. With three or four month 
old lambs intended for wethers the operation is thus performed. 
An assistant holds the animal firmly in any convenient position, 
preferably on a bench about three feet high. The assistant holds 
the hind legs firmly, drawing them forward. The operator then 
with the left hand gathers the loose skin at the bottom of the scro- 
tum by the fingers and with a round-edged, bladed castrating knife, 
cuts off the whole bottom of the bag at one cut. The testicles 
are then pressed out at this free opening, and the cords are separ- 
ated by scraping them apart close to the body, so that when the 
ends are released they will be drawn into the body. It is of great 
importance that the hands should be clean, having been washed 
with carbolic soap before beginning the operation, and they 
should be dipped in a sterilizing solution of bi-chloride of mer- 
cury after each operation, thus avoiding probable resulting in- 
flammation after the operation, and this is the only source of 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 357 

danger. The wound is tlieu sprayed with any steriHzing solution, 
or dusted witli sulphate of iron finely powdered, or wilii common 
sugar, and the animal is »et free in a clean floored barn for two 
days, until all danger of secondary inllammation may have 
passed. Generally it is quite safe to release the animals in a clean 
field, if it is not a .season when flies would gather on the wounds 
and blow them. 

At the same time when the young lambs are emasculated they 
should be docked, if this operation is thought necessary. It is 
hardly to be considered unless as a safeguard against the possible 
infection of the wounds by the blow Hies, and when the lambs 
are to be fed on succulent gi^een fodder crops, as rape or turnips, 
and fouling behind is to be provided for. But if to be docked, 
the lambs are operated on at the time of emasculating them, and 
in this simple manner. As they are held under the arm as above 
described the tail is taken by the left hand fingers, and the skin 
slipped up to the rump, the tail is then clipped off at the intended 
spot by the shears, the Avound covered Avith powdered bluestone 
and the wool draw^n over it. 

PAEASITES OF THE SHEEP.— SCAB. 

It has been the experience of all shepherds, from time im- 
memorial, that sheep Aveie, and are, "an unhappy fiock." This 
remark was made by one who possessed several thousand sheep, 
and in whose writings — consisting of poems which will never be 
neglected or forgotten, while the human race endures, and given 
to the world two thousand years ago — he simply expressed what 
has been the universal result of knowledge in the care of sheep. 
And doubtless while the causes of the numerous diseases due to 
attacks by parasites without, and within the sheep, Avere un- 
knoAvn, the diseases thus produced were as well known as they 
are to-daj', that is, in regard to the effects of them, although 
the special causes of most of them were not understood as we 
now know them. What can be more emphatic than this quota- 
tion rendered from Virgil's third Georgics, in regard to a disease 
which is even now the bane and the constant thought of the 
shepherd, and wdiich causes him untold apprehension and labor 
to evade: "I command that the sheep be supplied with grass 
(hay) in soft stables until the leafy summer is restored, and to 
spread the hard floor Avith much straAv and bundles of fern under 
them, lest the cold ice may injure the gentle flocks and produce 
the scab and filthy sores." Moreover those ancient shepherds 
well understood the practice of smearing the sheep as a preven- 
tive or cure of this AA'orst of all the parasites of the flock, al- 
though the true nature of it was then unknoAvn. Indeed as 
late as the last century it was not known, but the best informed 
of the shepherds of that day thought the disease Avas due to 
"suppressed perspiration, and bad keep, dogging and exposure to 
cold and AA^et." The scab insect then Avas declared to be of spon- 
taneous origin, and the existence of the pestiferous insect was 
never understood as Ave noAv knoAV it. 



358 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



Reoent exact knowledge now goes to help us greatly in strug- 
gling with this and all other parasites of our flocks, but the 
evil is so widespread and virulent, and there are so many who 
keep sheep who will not take the pains needed to exterminate 
all the pests of the flock, that it is hopeless to expect full deliv- 
erance from them. And the shepherd must still be watchful, ex- 
pert, and industrious, to avert the risks as far as may be possible. 

These parasites are external or internal, the former are few 
in number, but the latter abound, and the variety of them is as- 
tounding to those who study the matter in its full bearings. 
Of the external enemies of this class which trouble the flock by 
far the worst are: 

THE SCAB MITE. 

These are insects of the family known as Acari, in which is 
included the common itch mite, which infests mankind. It also 
includes three species which affect sheep. These are known as 
the Sarcoptes scabici, which infests the head of the sheep; Psorop- 




FiG. 27.— Scabby Sheep— Takep from Photograph. 

tes communis, which infests the body, and Chorioptes communis, 
which affects the feet. The life' history of these insects is similar 
in each rpecies. They attack the skin and bite it, and these 
wounds so made form scabs, under which the pests lay their 
eggs. Each female produces an average of ten young, which ma- 
ture in fifteen days, thus in the short season of three months 



t)tSEASES OF SHEEP. 359 

the progeny of a single mite may numlxn- a full million. Figure^ 
fail to convey the despeiute condition of an unfortunate sheep 
on which only a few of these niit€s are existing at the outset of 
a Summer. The picture of a scabby sheep here given, affords 
some approximate idea of the condition of the animal unless re- 
lieved of the millions of these insects which are burrowing under 
the diseased skin, c-overed by these filthy sores, as described in 
the above quotation. 

If any inquiring reader will take a piece of this dr>' scab from 
one of these sores, and lay it on a piece of Avhite paper under a 
common magnifying glass, the insects may be seen moving like 
so much dust on the sheet. When more highly magnified the 
insect appears much like a spider, to which it is somewhat re- 
lated, as may be seen in the engraving beloAv which shows the 
mature insect. 

THE HEAD SCAB MITE— AN ADULT FEMALE. 
SARCOPTES SCABICI, VARIETY OVIS. 

The head mites infest the skin of the sheep's head, beginning 
at the lips, near the nostrils, and ej^elids and ears. From these 

points they spread over the face 
and even down to the fore legs, 
under the belly and back of the 
knees, where the avooI is short. 
These pests go into the long wool, 
or the coarse fine oily kinds, but 
prefer the short, dry fleece to 
work in. 

The first indication is the rub- 
_, .„ - bing of the head bv the sheep, 

Fig. 28.-Highly Magnified. ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ invasion is 

to be judged by the efforts of 
the sheep to rid itself of its tormentors. At first there are slight 
elevations of the skin with soft centers, which break of them- 
selves, and discharge a thin fluid which dries and forms hard 
scabs, which adhere to the skin and the hairs. In these shelters 
the insects feed, produce their young, and increase in number. 
As. this increase makes it necessary these spots sprefid until the 
skin is covered with scabs, which increase in size and thickness, 
forming white, hard masses. In time they cover the face, lips, 
and forehead, and as the sheep rub themselves these scabs are 
broken and bleed. In time the wounds heal and scars are formed. 
At times the eyes are completely covered by the scabs, and the 
sheep becomes blind and helpless. 

Infection occurs from sheep to sheep, thus spreading through 
the flock. There is no other Avay by which these insects propa- 
gate or originate, but the ordinary process of generation from 
parents to offspring and so on throug-h succeeding generations. 
Thus the only way to find relief is to destroy the insects, thus 
cutting off the parents and stopping the increase. There are 
necessarily several ways of this infection spreading. The insects 




360 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



drop from the diseased sheep on to the ground, where other 
sheep may He, and others lying on the same ground, will of 
course become infected. They are rubbed off as the sheep 
scratch themselves in the vain effort to get relief, on 
fences, walls, and other places, and the infection easily spreads 
from these. As a flock passes on the road, another following will 
easily pick up the contagion. Sheep cars are notorious sources 
of infection obviously, and one scabby animal may infect thou- 
sands on a range which may follow in its track. 

This form of the disease is specially different from the other 
two, and cannot be mistaken for either of the others. It is indis- 
pensable, considering the enormous increase in the numbers 
of it, that instant measures be taken for its destruction and the 
saving of the flock. Fortunately the location of the pest makes 
its first appearance so prominent that no mistake can be made 
in distinguishing it, and then the remedy is easy. This is to wash 
the parts affected in any of the dips to be procured in the mar- 
ket, or of any of the ointments made for this purpose, or to apply 
any kind of sweet thin oil rubbing it well into the scabs after 
washing with carbolic or tar soap, and repeating the treatment 
until it is certain that it has been effective. 

THE COMMON SCAB MITE— PSOROPTES COMMUNIS. 

This is the most to be feared by the shepherds of all the ex 
ternal parasites of the flock. It is a much larger insect than tlie 
head mite, and is visible to the unaided eye if gathered on some 




Fig. 29.— Male and Female Scab InsectSo 



white surface. It has been so neglected, as seems to be the 
rule, left for some one else to attend to, that it has gained an 
almost impregnable footing through the whole world. It has thus 
become the subject of legislation in many countries, but this as 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 361 

a rule is based on the same principle, "let others do it." But if 
all concerned were actuated— let us say— by common sound sense, 
this disease might be extenninated utterly in a few years;, the 
greatest difficulty being experienced in the first tliree from the 
begmning. After that the work would be easy and more and 
more effective, as the numbers of the pests became reduced. But 
under present circumstances, in Avhich the rule sc^ems to be how not 
to do it, the pestilence yearly becomes more and more extended, 
and relief fades into the uncertain distance. Thus the shepherd is 
under the necessity of dipping his sheep twice a year and still 
with only negative results. 

The habits of this insect are similar to those of the previously 
described one. The first symptoms of its presence are that the 
sheep are seen to be biting themselves, apparently nibbling the 
wool. This of itself is bad, for the avooI is apt to l)e swallowed 
and gathers in the intestines where it fonns balls, which by ac- 
cumulation of mucus and more wool, finally obstruct the intes- 
tines and cause trouble Avhich is most likely to end fatally. This 
is one of the results of this infection which otherAvise would not 
happen. The fleece of a scabby sheep soon becomes rough, ragged, 
and matted in patches, these spreading until in time they meet, 
when the animal exhibits the wretched appearance showed at fig. 
27. At this stage of the disease, the crusts have greatly increased 
in thickness, and are more firmly adherent to the body. These 
crusts, in the same manner as some of the vegetable growths 
like ringworm, spread from the outer edge, and thus continually 
grow larger, while the centers heal, but leave the bare skin. 
If the inflammation has penetrated to the wool follicles of the 
skin, in which the fibers are rooted, these spots will remain per- 
manently bare, rough, and unsightly. 

In those places in which the fleece still exists, it is stuck to- 
gether in rough masses, tangled and matted, felted in fact, and 
and thus the sheep in its efforts to relieve itself from the intolera- 
ble irritation, tears off the wool, leaving bare spots, not as yet 
so far been diseased, but only as to form scabs, but yet so far as to 
loosen the wool. This species is most inclined to the thickest 
an<l longest wool, and hence it does the most damage to the 
flock owner. The disease begins on the back, spreading to the 
rump and doAATi the flanks. The scabs are at first separated ;_ as 
the disease spreads from the centers first infected: but in time 
these spots run together leaving between the active centers bare 
patches in thickened skin. At the edges of these patches the in- 
sects are found in the greatest numbers, and entirely cover the 
skin. Tliey may there be seen moving in large clusters, and if 
picked up and placed on the hand their motions are easily visible. 
Old and young of each sex, in the act of propagating, and the 
eggs, may all be gathered in this way for observation by the 
curious. 

The disease is at its worst in the Fall and Winter. As may be 
thought the poorly nourished and exposed flocks suffer the mo=t 
because of their want of ability to resist, and the disease will 



363 THE DOMESTIC SHEEf* 

make a slower progress as the flock is more able to resist the ad- 
vances of the parasites. 

"The fittest survive." This is one of the organic laws of the 
universe, and in addition to all the precautions by which these 
pests are destroyed, as by the semi-annual dipping, and by every 
precaution against infection, by dipping thoroughly every exposed 
animal brought into a flock, we must secure exemption from this 
worst of all ailments of the sheep. The old sheep, too, should be 
dipped in time to secure the lambs against infection, and what- 
ever sheep are found to be suffering from the parasite should 
be most carefully isolated until treatment can be used to disin- 
fect them. In using any dip it will be found desirable to prepare 
the sheep by a previous application, by which the scabs may be 
softened and to break these up at the same time by some rough 
means, as by a bundle of corn cobs so arranged as to effect this 
purpose in a thorough manner. For it will be obvious that unless 
the crusts are broken into, so that the dip will reach the insects, 
much of the effect of the dipping will be thrown away uselessly. 
In short, in this, as in all similar operations of the shepherd, 
that valuable quably known as gumption is to be made use of in 
a thorough manner. 

We prefer to say nothing as to the dips, except tO' guard our 
readers against the far too acrid sulphur-and-lime mixture, on ac- 
count of its bad effect on the fleeces of sheep dipped in a precau- 
tionary manner, and as a preventi\e of the disease. There are 
so many good and safe dips in the market that it will be found 
best to depend on those which are made under accurate methods, 
as to quantities and qualities, and follow the expert advice in 
their application, and so avoid misuse or ineffective work, 
and also the certain injury to the fleece which is one sure 
result of this too acrid dip referred to. For it is a matter of ex- 
perience that the saving of this loss will not only insure success 
in the work, but will pay the whole expense of it. 

THE MAGGOT. 

The maggot is a larvae of the common flesh fly (sarcophaga 
carnaria), the blue-bottle fly (musca Caesar), and the m.eat fly 
(musca vomitoria), all of which deposit eggs on decaying animal 

matter. These eggs or larvae are 
deposited in vast numbers in 
sores or wounds or where sheep 
become filthy when troubled with, 
diarrhea- A single Sarcophagus 
sometimes contains twenty thou- 
FiG. 30.— Maggot Fly. sand eggs. The maggot attacks 

the skin, causing extreme irrita- 
tion and finally a serous fluid; the skin is pierced and the flesh 
supperates and wastes away, being literally eaten up by the 
multitudes of maggots crawling over it. Wet seasons are particu- 
larly bad for this pest. It is necessary to remove the wool from 
about the infected parts and apply any of the sheep dips or com- 




DISEASES OF SHEEP. 368 

inou crude petroleum which are repulsive and fatal to tlie fly and 
maggot. When the fly "strikes" a sheep it will often wander 
away, and unless found and treated will be literally eaten up. 
Watch the ewes at weaning time for this pest as the udder may 
become caked, and the fly will strike. 

THE SHEEP LOUSE— TKICHODECTES 
SPHAEROCEPHALUS. 

The mere exposure of sheep to any disturbing influence is 
disastrous. Thus the louse, by which the sheep is annoyed, is 
sufficiently worth notice in this regard to cause the shepherd 
to tciKe the due precautions to secure the sheep from the annoy- 
ance of it. 

The red-headed Sheep Louse (Frichodectes Sphaerocephalus) 
was almost unknown in this country until recent j-ears. It is now 





Fig. 31. Fig. 32. 

Eggs on Wool Fibers, Sheep Louise; Highly Magnified. 

becoming very abundant in some se<'tions, and the damage it does 
to young lambs and sheep is of sufficient importance to engage 
the attention of every flockmaster. 

The true sheep louse rarely exceeds one-twenty-fifth of an 
inch in length. The female is slightly longer and larger than the 
male. Its head occupies about one-fourth its length and is of a 
pale reddish color. The adults lay their eggs at the base of the 
wool fibers and a glutinous substance sticks them there. The lice 
are generally found on the bare spots between the legs and body, 
just under the shoulder. In young lamljs and open-wool sheep 
they may frequently be found in large numbers on the back of 
the neck. 

The injury wrought by these parasites is very considerable. 
They live on the blood of the host, and in biting through the skin 
they cause an intense itching sensation and leave a wound. They 
give great discomfort to the sheep and the wool becomes gnarly 
and worthless wherever these pests attack the skin. 

In New Zealand dipping for these parasites has been made 
compulsory by the government. Sheep lice rarely ever attack 
the fine wool, or Merino sheep. One dipping in any standard 
dip, Avill be sufficient to not only kill the live lice, but also destroy 
all the eggs of these parasites. 




864 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

THE SHEEP TICK-MELOPHAGUS OVINUS. 

Some writers on sheep and their numerous troubles, have 
said that this insect seldom causes much damage to the sheep 
in any way. Experienced shepherds wi:l difier in this. They are well 

aware that this insect does very 
serious injury to the sheep as 
being both the direct and indirect 
cause of not onl.y inconvenience, 
but disturbance of the health and 
prosperity of both the sheep and 
the lambs. They interfere with 
the growth of the lambs by 
crowding on to them as soon as 
the ewes are shorn, and then 
*^' ^^' begins a mostly unsuspected 

drainage of the life blood of 
the hope of the liock, as the ancient writer well called the lambs. 
The lambs, suffering seriously from these blood suckers, one hun- 
dred of which on a lamb will easily drain it dry of blood in a few 
days, cannot prosper, and soon become emaciated and weak, 
and never after recover the loss of vitality thus inflicted on 
them. 

This insect is a degraded fly in every sense of the word, hav 
ing no wings, but six legs only. The species differs from the true 
ticks, which belong to the spider family, while the sheep tick is a 
member of the diptera or tAvo-winged insects, which have only six 
legs,the spider families having eight legs. Like many other flies, 
as the deer fly, the horse fly, and the mosquito, the sheep tick is a 
blood sucker and an exceedingly hungry one. Sixty drops are the 
usual measure of one liquid ounce, and an inch tick will easily 
draw several drops of blood from a lamb in twenty-four hours, 
always having its pump in operation, day and night, and it is by 
no means rare that a hundred of these pests may feed on one 
lamb, it is easy to figure out the problem, how long will so many 
ticks drain a lamb dry of blood. 

\^^ien the ewes are shorn, the ticks migrate immediately on to 
the lambs, burying themselves in the thick, short wool and im- 
mediately begin active business. This serious view of the case 
of the ticks against the sheep, is not sufficiently considered; and 
it should be made a practice when the sheep are shorn, to pro 
ceed at once to dip the lambs and so relieve them of these 
persecutors for good and all, and of course save the sheep in the 
future. As to this, the tick should be classed next to the scab 
mite, and treated accordingly. 

This fly has a unique interest to the scientific student, inas- 
much as it brings forth its young, not in the form of eggs or liv- 
ing larvae, but in an advanced stage as pupae. These are the 
almost round, red bodies, seen attached to the wool on ticky ani- 
mals. They are to be got rid of most industriously. The author 
has had experience in clearing the lambs and sheep both in a 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 365 

unique way probably. This is by keeping a flock of fowls in the 
sheepyard at the lambing season, and indeed at all times. Feed- 
ing them when the sheep are fed, for the mere purpose of ob- 
serving how they will most industriously pick the ticks out of the 
wool of both ewes and lambs. This the fowls do most effectively 
in the warm days when the ticks come to the surface of the fleece 
to cool themselves and get the fresh air. These insects cannot 
live apart from the sheep over a few days, and thus their voracity 
is Avell accounted for. It is not only the loss of blood that weak- 
ens tlie sheep and much more the lambs, but the intolerable 
pain caused by their bites. Like the mosquito they inject into 
the wounds they make some poison, which liquidates the blood, 
and this produces a more annoying irritation than the mosquito 
does. The poison causes swelling of the skin, Vvhich lasts— as l-)r. 
Curtis states in his work on the Animal Parasites of the Sheep— 
for over a week, and is accompanied by a worse itching than that 
of mosquito bites. Those concerned Avho have experienced the 
severe pain of the bites of the mosquito, will surely sympathize 
with the sheep, "always an unhappy flock," according to the old 
writer, and all modern experience. 

Treatment for this parasite consists mostly of dipping, in the 
same Avay, and at the same time, as for the scab. Indeed, it is 
the best way to dip the flock expressly for this purpose at the 
shearing time, Avhich is also advisable — indeed it may be 
said indispensable— as a means of avoiding infection by the scab, 
or curing insipient infection already accomplished, by exposure to 
the disease. Thus we accomplish two valuable ends at one opera- 
tion. The ticks that remain in the wool wrapped in the folded 
fleeces wall starve in a few days. If this operation is neglected, 
the seed will be sown for the coming years the next Summer. 



366 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

APHTHA.— SORE MOUTH. 

This disease consists of inflamed mouth and is of two kinds. 
One affects the tongue mostly, and sometimes spreads to the 
parts of the mouth adjacent to the tongue. The symptoms 
are as follows: Small bladders or vesicles appear on the sides 
of the tongue, and under it on its connections with other parts 
of the mouth. The blisters burst and form sore inflamed spots 
v/hich cause a discharge of saliva, or drooling or driveling, 
Avhich sometimes become bloody and offensive. These sores 
sometimes become troublesome ulcers and these may spread 
to the throat, with general swelling of the head, the eyes and 
nostrils being implicated, leaving the sheep unable to ste or 
swallow. This disease should be checked on the first appear- 
ance of it, when this treatment will generally relieve the sheep. 
The blisters should be pricked and the mouth well washed 
by means of a soft swab using this preparation: Dissolve alum 
in water, adding one-fourth as inuch borax. If the mouth be- 
comes offensive it is washed with a lotion made of one dram 
of chloride of lime in a pint of warm water. Feed warm gruel 
in which dissolve one dram of hypo-sulphite of soda. Alter- 
nately with this give in the gruel a dram of ginger and two 
of gentian, both finely powdered. Continue until relief is gained. 

A less virulent form of this disease . is known as thrush, 
and is attended by similar vesicles or blisters, but although 
the sheep is unable to feed, the inflammation is not serious. 
Sometimes, however, the gums are swollen so that the teeth 
may be eovered, and the lips distorted. When ewes suckling 
lambs are thus affected they may refuse to nurse the lambs, 
and the lambs having become infected by the milk, carry the 
infection to the udder, the teats then becoming sore. This 
disease is contagious, and it is necessary to isolate the diseased 
sheep. These are treated in this way: Dissolve honey in vine- 
gar, and to half a pound of the mixture add six ounces of 
burned alum, and two drams of sulphate of copper. Apply this 
to the sores every morning. Before applying this it is useful 
to wash the sores with strong solution of hypo-sulphite of 
soda, and give one tablespoonful of the solution, as strong as 
it can be made, alternately with the ginger and gentian mix- 
ture above mentioned. Feed the warm gruel, which if neces- 
sarj^, should be given by a bottle. 

DROPSY. 

A frequent disease of sheep is marked by a prominent swell- 
ing, soft and fluctuating, under the throat. This is one of 
the prominent symptoms of the disease anasiarca, elsewhere 
described; but at times this disorder is not connected with the 
general constitutional disease known bj'' this name. There are 
various causes of this special dropsical condition of the animal 
by which these soft watery swellings under the jaws are pro- 
duced. In general the cause is a low conditioTi of the animal, 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 



367 



consequent on disorder o the digestive functions, the liver espe- 
cially being implicated. In anasarca these soft swellingrLuear 
n other parts of the body, especially under the belly and bns 

law wh 1^.1'' 'T °' '^"^^^ ^^^^ ^^--t^d at !i'u.nder the 
aw u here the swellings are most prominent. The treatment 

diu?etSs'% T '° '!" """^^^ °'' ^^^^^^" ^'^ alternated wkh 
diuretics, as turpentine in one ounce doses, as soon as th 
salts has operated. With this alternately, gi;e dai y the ton^ 
mixture elsewhere described, that is, an e^en mixture of .in.P 
gentian and sulphate of iron, finely powdered rbran'mfs! 
^ueffrng^ilip^er '' ^^^^^^"^' '^ ^--^ ^^^^ - -^^" the 
EPILEPSY. 

turbance'^^f .1''/''^^'' °^ ^?' "^^^^"^ ^^'^^em due to dis- 
turbance of the digestion most y. It is inhehtpd pnH inrr^K. 
are frequently diseased from birth. The she pl^' uncon c"S 
after running around in a dazed condition; m a short time Z 
Hef as'^raTet^'ft'tf '^^^^^ trembles, 'and then'\he"amma 
.Wf f K' }^ ^^''''' ^^ts up, shakes itself, and in a 

short time goes to feeding. The disease is prevented by avoid 
ng exposure on pastures wet with dew, but especially when 
frost covers the ground. Treatment is to give a brisk purga 

llSrnat n" th '"'^V '?'''' '' Podop.hyllin in some grul , da fy; 
alternating this with the tonic mixture elsewhere described. 

GOITRE. 

Goitre is a permanent swelling .under the jaws differin<^ from 
that caused by the dropsical affection elsewhere descr Sed T 
IS inherited, and frequently appears in new born lambs It i 

£e th'?h: thrr"' f'""' ^'-^""^ '''^^' ^^-^-^ - -suited 

beneath the throat, and is common among sheep in districts 
in which the soil is underlaid by magnesfan limestone Gen 
eral weakness of constitution encourages and aggravates the 
disease. In sheep this swelling is larger than in am- othe? ant 
mal, extending from the jaws to the breast. Lambs are fre 

an" hen die T^ ". ''." '°"'^'^°°' "^ ''^^'' ^ short t me 
and then die. The treatment is only alleviative, a cure is 

scarcely ever effected unless the disease is checked a? the out- 
set of It, and then the enlargement is permanent. Prevention 
\^i' only resource. This consists in tlie use of rain water 
which should be collected in cisterns or reservoirs wherever 

ma'tte^r'Thr.^- '''"'"' '^! '^'""^'^ '^''''^^ '^' ^P^^'^^ --eral 
niatters. The disease is most common in the Nortl^west, where 
the underlying rocks are of this kind of limestone. The ^eoTo 
gical character of parts of the extreme Western states is also 
detrimental to sheep in this way. At the outset of the di^eaJe 
iLfJ^^rlTT °^ ^^*^i"' ^^ ^"^"^'^ ^°^^^ ^f ^^^^ ^ dram to a 
the di^^se ^' ^ ^^'^^' "^^^^ '^''^ ^^^ *^^^^°^^ ^^ 



is 



368 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

LOCKJAW.— TETANUS. 

Tetanus is a disease of the nervous system, and consists 
of persistent cramps of the muscles of the neck and face. The 
first symptom of the disease is general stiffness of the neck, 
the head being held up stiffly, and tlie face rigid, the jaws 
cramped and immovable. It is inheritable, and otherwise due 
to exiposure to sudden changes of weather or to continued cold 
rains by which the spinal nei-ve is chilled and paralyzed. The 
proaninent symptoms are general stiffness of the body, espe- 
cially of the neck and shoulder, the legs straddle apart, and 
in moving the joints are not bent. The chief symptom, how- 
ever, is the cramps of the facial muscles, by which the jaws 
are paralyzed and cannot be opened. 

The treatment is to isolate the sick sheep, to keep it in 
the dark, and in perfect quiet; feed soft mashes or gruel, or 
if it is a lamb give a hot bath and wrap it in a blanket. A 
full dose of Epsom salts is given; if the sheep cannot swal- 
low, give an injection of warm soapy water. Then give two 
drams of laudanum, with an equal quantity of ground ginger, 
in gruel. Perfect quiet is essential to successful treatment. The 
treatment for epilepsy may be applied to this similar disease. 
Both this disease and epilepsy are most often due to exposure 
to cold rains 'by which the spinal nerve is chilled. 

STRETCHES. 

This disease is simply the result of indigesition and consti- 
pation due to it. The sheep stands with legs spread apart 
fore and aft, grunts and raises the head, then shakes itself, 
and walks with a straddling gait. It is due to impaction of 
the stomach and bowels, the result of dry, coarse, indigestible 
feed. The remedy is a brisk purgative, as Epso'm salts in four 
to six ounce doses, and after relief give the tonic mixture daily 
for a week or ten days, once a day. Bran mashes and espe- 
cially some fresh green fodder, or beets or other roots are use- 
ful in this condition of a sheep. 

EPIZOOTIC OPHTHALMIA. 

At times whole flocks are suddenly stricken with inflam- 
mation of the eyes which quickly ends in almost complete 
loss of sight, temporarily if "treatment is applied without de- 
lay, otherwise permanentIJ^ This may be confined to a nar- 
row locality, or it may occur over an extensive territory. This 
is epizootic inflammation of the eyes, due to some general con- 
dition which is not completely understood as to the cause or 
causes of it. Most probably it is due to some peculiarity of 
the weather, or to some poisonous infection in the air, for 
it has been known to spread in the direction of a prevailing 
. wind. The symptoms are redness of the eye, with general fever, 
and in a short time the clouding of the eye with a bluish 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 369 

white suppuration into the cornea, shading the pupil and giv- 
ing it a bluish opaque appearance Avhich extinguishes the sight. 
The system is feverish and the general health suffers. 

Treatment is to give a full dose of a cooling purgative, 
Epsom salts in six ounce doses twice each day. Then give half- 
ounce doses of saltpeter once each day for two days. In the 
meantime inject into the eyes a solution of one dram each of 
nitrate of silver and carbolic acid, with ten grains of morphia, 
using ten drops of the solution twice a day. A blister behind 
the ears will be useful. Keep the eyes shaded by a cloth 
hanging over the face, which should be kept wet with the 
solution mentioned. Feed warm bran mashes. Separate the 
diseased sheep from the rest of the flock, and the first ap- 
pearance of disease in the:5e, draft out the sick animal imme- 
diately and put it under treatment. 

TOXALINE TREATMENT. 

' "Will the Toxaline treatment, recently announced by an 
European scientist, do all that is claimed for it by authorities 
on 'parasites in sheep,' Avho have tested and commended it?" 
This question is being asked bj sheepmen everywhere. We are 
pleased to report that in no case has the treatment failed to 
kill the stomach and lung worm. We are receiving many let- 
ters from flockmasters asking about the treatment. The dis- 
coverer of Toxaline claims it to be a specific only. It will 
destroy parasites of the stomach and lungs, but cannot pre- 
vent reinfection from the millions of genns that abound on 
farms or ranches where the disease has obtained a foothold. 
Certain seasons are more productive of the pests than others. 
This is especially true in a wet season, or Avhere sheep have 
free access to stagnant water. Flockmasters must remove the 
cause if these pests are to be kept from the sheep. Preven- 
tives in the form of any of the standard worm powders, or 
tonics, should he kept and freely used on lambs run on in- 
fected farms or pastures. 



J70 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



PROMINENT SYMPTOMS OF COMMON DISEASES. 

Appetite, Depraved, Ravenous.— Worms in the intestines. Indi- 
gestion. 
Want of. — Over feeding. Any serious disorders of the 
system. 
Biting the hind legs.— Myelitis. 
Bleating.— Indigestion. Impaction of the rumen (the first 

stomach. 
Bowels, Constipated.— Impaction of the fourth or the third 
stomach. Rheumatism. Indigestion. 
Looseness of.— Disease of the liver. Fluke diseases. Chronic 
Indigestion. Intestinal worms. 
Breathing, Rapid.— Anthrax. With dry, hot mouth, fevers. 
Gasping. — Impaction of stomach. 
Long and short alternately. Inflammation of the lungs. 

Pleurisy. Pleuro-pneumonia. 
Rattling and loose. Pleuro-pneumonia. 
Cough, Frequent and short.— Indigestion. Catarrh. 
Husky.— Thread worms in the throat. 
Deep and rattling.— Bronchitis. Pleurisy. 
Discharge, from Nose.— Thi)i. Catarrh. Bronchitis (changing to 
thick and dry, about the nostrils.) Grubs in the 
head. (Mixed with blood.), Influenza (greenish or 
creamy) . 
From the vulva. — White, thin, Leueorrhea (inflamma- 
tion of the womb). Yellowish, purulent, approach 
of abortion. 
From the eyes.— Ophthalmia. Injury by stubble, or alka- 
line dust on the range. From the penis of rams. 
Gonnorhea. Gleet. (This is contagious to the 
ewes.) 
Eyes.— Cloudiness-- Inflammation of cornea. Bluish film. Ophthal- 
mia. 
Redness.— Inflammation of the interior of the eye. 
Thick film over cornea. — Cataract. 

Redness, with weeping.— Anthrax. (Black leg or black quar- 
ter). One of the first symptoms. 
Weeping.- Catarrh. Injury 'V chaff or alkaline dust. 
Fleece, Harsh, dry.— Disease of the liver. Worms in intestines. 
Loosening.— Congestion of skin. Indigestion. Result of a 
general low condition. 
Giddiness.— Disease of the brain. Impaction of the stomach. 
With turning around. Cysts of tapcAvorm (Tenia Coenurus) 
in the brain. This disorder is often called Gid- 
Head held up.— Tapeworm cysts in the brain. Myelitis. 
Jaws,' swelling under. — Soft, watery. Disease of the liver. 
Flukes. Tape worms. 
Harder.— Disease of the thyroid gland (Goitre) . 
General weakness of the system and im- 
poverished blood. Dropsy. General low 
condition, 



DISEASES OF SHEEP 371 

Lameness.— Going on the knees.— Foot rot. Sore feet. 

In the hind limbs. — Paralysis, due to brain disease. 
Leaping motions.— Louping ill. Myelitis. Congestion of the brain. 
Lips sore. — Aphtha, injury by stubble pasturing. Fevers. Effects 

of Porcupine grass. (tStipa iSpartea.) Fevers. 
Loco.— Insanity from eating crazy weed (Astragalus Moilismus or 

Oxytropis Lamberti). 
Liver, spotted.— Congestion. Inflammation. Flukes and other 

worms, in gall bladder and ducts. 
Milt, soft, black and swollen,— Anthrax, Splenic fever. 
Moving in circles or straight ahead with head up.— Cysts of the 

bladder — tape wonn (Coenurus cerebralis). 
Neck stiff. — Myelitis. Rheumatism. 

Paralysis. — Disease of the brain. Myelitis. Injury to spinal cord. 

Loco weeds. Ergot from smutty grass, corn fodder, or 

grain. Indigestion. Exposure to cold rain. In young lambs 

inherited. 

Pawing. — Indigestion. Impaction of stomach. 

Scours, white in lambs. — Indigestion. Effects of diseases of the 

bowels or liver in ewes. 
Shivering. — Fevers. Anthrax. Splenic fever. 
Skin, Pale. — Thread worms in throat. 

Red. — Congesition. First indication of scab. 
Yellow. — Disease of liver. Fluke disease. Disease of liver by 
tape worms. 
Slobbering. — Indigestion. Sore mouth. Diseased teeth. Poisoning 

by laurel or loco weeds. 
Sneezing.^Grubs in head. Influenza. Catarrh. ^ 
Snorting.— Grub in head- 

Spasmodic motions. — Meningitis. Hj-datids in brain. 
Stiffness of limbs and neck. — Rheumatism. Myelitis. 
Staggering. — Inflammation of the brain. Poisoning by laurel and 

loco weeds. Cysts of tape woiTns in the brain. 
Stomach bloated. — Hoven or bloating. Indigestion. Poisoning. 
Stupor. — Disease of brain — the last and hopeless stage. Epi- 
zootic influenza. Last stage of diseases of the lungs and 
pleuro-pneumonia . 
Teeth grating. — Indigestion. Fluke disease. Poisoning. 
Tliroat glands swollen.— Dropsy. Disease of the thyroid gland, es- 
pecially prevalent in lambs. 
Soft swelling. — Liver disease. Dropsy. Tape and other 
worms producing general debility. Fluke disease- 
Trembling. — Disease of the brain. Myelitis. Poisoning, especially 

by laurel. 
Urine, red.— Disease of the bladder, by gravel or stone, or inflam- 
mation. 
Disease of the liver a result of indigestion. 
Disease of the kidneys. 
Dark red. — Anthrax. Splenic fever. 
Vulva, red. — Indication of heat in ewes. 

Bed and swollen.— Premonitory of abortion- 



372 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



Wool, falling.— Scab. Congestion of the skin. Low condition of 
the system. 
Harsh and dr5^ — Disease of the skin. Fevers, 
Biting of, by sheep.— Ticks, lice, irritation of skin by indi- 
gestion. Effects of various worms. 
It is not a safe way to treat a sheep from any one of these 
symptoms alone. There are several of them associated with every 
disease mentioned. It is therefore indispensable that every indica- 
tion is to be carefully noted, and when the several symptoms agree 
together the disease may then be safely diagnosed, and treated ac- 
cordingly. The prognosis of any disease — that is, the expectation 
of its course and end— may be gathered from the urgency of the 
various symptoms and the association of them in each special 
case. It is to be ahvays considered that sheep are the lowest or- 
ganized of all the domestic animals- This is doubtless due to the 
fact that from the very first association of this animal with man- 
kind, and its consequent dependence on the shepherd for its 
safety and care, it has become so w^eakened in constitution as to 
be the least of all the domesticated animals to resist misfortune. 
And hence the most watchful care of the shepherd is called for 
to avoid misfortune, and to Avatch carefully for the first indica- 
tion of it, and then treat without delay and while treatment may 
be effective. 



LIST OF REMEDIES AND USES, SPECIALLY FOR SHEEP. 



-Sedative for inflammations. Sheep 3 to 5 
anti-spasmodic, indigestion. 



4 to 1 dram. 
For spasmodic affections. 



Aconite, Tincture of. 

drops. • 
Ammonia, Carbonate. — Stimulant, 

J to 1 dram. 
Areca nut, vermifuge.— For worms in 
Belladonna, extract-- Anti-spasmodic. 

Myelitis. Paraplegia, -h dram. 
Bismuth, sub-nitrate.— Soothes irritation of stomach. Catarrh. 
Bromide Potassium.— Nerve sedative. Myelitis. Inflammation of 

brain. -J dram. 
Camphor.— Sedative-— Anti-spasmodic. 

stomach. Diarrhea. Dysentery. 
Castor oil.— Purgative.— Worms. 3 to 



Myelitis. 
1 scruple. 



Impaction oc 



Wounds, 



ounces. 
sores, cuts. 



Copper sulphate.— Astringent. 

or powder. 
Digitalis.— Dandelion extract. 

grains. 
Gentian.— Tonic. Want of appetite. 

drams. . \ -, 

Ginger.— Stimulant. Tonic. Indigestion. (With gentian) i 
Iodine.— Alterative. Diuretic. Diseases of kidneys. 
Iodide of Potassium.— Alterative. Diuretic. 3 scruples. 
Iron sulphate.— Astringent. Tonic. Checks bleeding. 

Indigestion. With gentian, 



In solution 



-Diuretic. Sedative. Fevers. 10 
Weakness. Worms. 1 to 2 



Wounds. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 373 

Laudanum.— Sedative. Anti-spasmodic. Myelitis. 2 drams. 

Linseed oil. — Purgative, i pint- Checks dysentery. 2 ounces. 

Magnesia sulphate. — Epsom salts. — Purgative. Cooling, Indiges- 
tion. Fevers. Constipation. 4 ounces. For diarrhea A dose. 

Nux vomica. — Nerve stimulant. Hydro-Rachitis. Myelitis. Par- 
alysis. 5 to 10 grains. 

Podophyllin.— Mandrake. — Purgative. Diorders of liver. 15 grains. 

Potassa chlorate. — Stimulant. Anti-septic. Cooling. Fevers, 
Black leg. 30 grains. 

Soda chloride. — Salt- — Tonic. Vermifuge. Indigestion. ^ ounce. 

Soda, Hyposulphite. — Alterative. Disinfectant. Black leg. 4 
drams. 

Santonine. — Vermifuge. Stomach worms. 2 to 4 drams. 

Spanish fly. — Cantharides. — Stimulant. Diuretic, Stimulant for 
ewes in season. 1 to 2 grains. 

Sulphur. — Promotes perspiration. Laxative. 1 to 2 ounces. 

Tar. — Anti-septic. Tonic. For wounds, i ounce. 

Turpentine. — Anti-spasmodic. Diuretic. Myelitis. Bloating. Colds. 
1 to 2 drams. 

Turpentine. — Vermifuge. Stomachy lung and other worms. 4 
drams. 

It is to be carefully noted that the sheep is the lowest organ- 
ized of all domestic animals as to its nervous system. No other 
animal so soon submits to misfortune and fails to rally from a 
depressed condition. It is therefore necessary to study carefully 
the various symptoms present in any case of disease, and consider 
whether a sedative or stimulant is called for. The latter is re- 
quired when great Aveakness and prostration call for it, and in 
cases in which, otherwise sedatives are injurious. Generally treat- 
ment is needed at intervals of six hours, to be repeated if not 
then effective. For lambs from 6 months to a year old the doses 
should be reduced to one-half those required by a full grown sheep. 
Sedatives allay and lessen excitement, in which the action of the 
nervous system is excessive. This class of remedies depress, stimu- 
lants excite, nervous action. Tonics strengthen the vital functions. 



374 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



THE GOAT. 



Another animal, or patlier race of animals, dlosely allied 
to the slieep, is its congener the goat. This tribe is separated 
into two dis/tinct classes, the short haired and the long 
haired. Like the sheep the goat is valued for its fleece, and 
for its flesh and milk. Its milk is ihe richest of all animals 
except the whale (which is not a fish but one of the varieties 
of tihe maimimalia, or milk giving animals). The whale's 
milk has far eiore fat in it tlian that of any other animal, 
this being about seventeen to eighteen per cent; tihe milk of 
the goat has five to seven per ceat of pure fait in it, and is 
thus highly valued for medical pui*poses, especially as a diet 
for consumptives. But it is as a wool bearer that we have 
to consider it in these pages. The finest wool in the world 
is the under fleece of the Cashmere goat, renowned as the 
producer of (that costly staple of which the most highly val- 
ued shawls in the vsorld are made. This animal is a native 
of Asia, and is reared mostly in Persia, and especially in the 
Province of Cashmei-e, although most of the aiighly valued 
shawls are not made in that special locality. This valuable 
part of the fleece is the undergrowth, which is not sheared, 
but naturally falls off in the spring and is combed out of tihe 
upper fleece when it is loosening at its annual period. This 
wool is exquisitely soft, fine, and silky, having tihe elasticity 
of down. The yearly product is quite small, a full grown 
animal yielding only a few ounces of the best quality of the 
wool. 

So far it has never been thought worthy of culture out- 
side of its native locality, and as it is only profitable for the 
special purpose of this quite insignificant manufacture, it is 
scarcdy proba.ble that this goat will be worthy of attention 
here. 

ANGORA GOATS 

Are now attractLng the attention AvMch tliese beautiful and 
valuable animals deserve. In their nature as browsers, they 
are similajr to the common goat, and live mostly on leaves, 
cf busihes, briars, and weeds, and herein lies one of the 
Chief eilemenits of profit, as they can be kept in a pasture 
where such character of range exists, witho>ut interfering 
with its carryiing capacity for other stock, and in addition 




H c 
O «J 

o n 



376 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



to tihis, by g-etting their feed largely froim that portion of 
the range which is covered by brus-h, and distributing their 
droppings all over the pasture, the more open parts of grass 
land are enriched by what wioiild otherwise have lain wiast- 
ed in the thickets. 

The exact origin of the Angora goat is in dispute, but 
its native home so far as late generations are coincernecl is 
in the Province of Angora, in Asiatic Turlcey, a iei\\ hiin- 
dred miles inland from Constantinople. The Turkish gov- 
ernment prohibits the export of any stock from there, and 
but few :have ifound their way to the Umted States, and 
none liave been imported froim there for nearly 20 years; 
however fro-m tHiose that were brought over have descended 
many excellent flocks, principally in Texas and California, 
and of late years in many oif the Nortliern States, where 
they thrive excellently well, especially where there is under- 
brusih or vsprout-^ on timber land from which the larger mer- 
chantable growth has been cut off. They are frequently 
used for clearing the land of scrub groiwth and will do this 
if confined on a limited area, as tliey then eat the leaves off 
clean, and bark much of the yomng timber, but in the South 
^'liere they are kept for the production of INIoliair and their 
increase, the flockmasters regard their brush land much as 
a sheepman does his grass, and do not overstock their 
goat range for the 'same reasoiu, frequently moving camps 




where the size of the range admits, and for this purpose a 
portable house is useful. I ihave used the one shown here 
for goat or sheep camp ^ for many years. 



THE GOAT. 377 

While goaits prefer leaves and weeds, they will kee^ 
fat on blue grass and clover when this is the only ran;:^ 
available. 

The Eng"llsh Cape Colony in South Africa has been 
more fortunate than we liave, in tihe raajtter of obtaining 
importations of Ang-ora goats from Turkey, largely owing 
to British influence, and for many years the flockma-ters 
there have paid much careful and scientific attention to 
breeding 'bhem, until they now diave flocks thaf avernge 
througihout better in quality and breeding qualitications 
than those in the county' from which the stock originated, 
and wliere there is not the same special care paid to selec- 
tion for propagation and with a view to mainitaiuing a high 
sitandard. 

Much interesting information on this subject is CDn- 
tained in Mr. Cronwright Schreiner's "The Angora Guat," 
which is now regarded as the standard work of its kind, 
and which can be obtained from tilie "American SIheep 
Breeder" Publishing Co., of Chicago. Some years ago An- 
gora goats were regarded as Cashmeres in the U. S. and 
even now the impres ion prevails that there are Cashmeres 
in this country; this is va mistake, nor is it likelj' that they 
will be raised here even if climatic canditions proved fa- 
vorable, as only a few^ ounces of very fine Oa&hmere hair 
(called "pus/hm") can be s(horn from a goat and there is 
only a very uncertain demand for thi> at a price which 
would in any way justify its production. 

With the Angoras it is different, and their products are 
staple articles of commerce in all civilized countries. 

The moihair is used more largely for manufacturing 
purposes as the lasting quality of the good=; becomes under- 
stood, the plush coverings in the seats of many public con- 
veyances (Pullman cars, etc.) show^ well how valuable this 
quality is. It is more indestructible than any other animal 
or vegetable fibre that can be used for the purpose, and is 
being more and more extensively used in covering furni- 
ture, as it adds lustre and beauty to its lasting qualities, 
and can be dyed any color. There is also a grood demand 
for the pelts when dressed Arith the Qiair on, as these make 
handsome rugs and ornaments, and many are used in trim- 
mings and for capes. 



378 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

T'lie ,meat of the Angora goat is excellent and is much 
more langely used /in all large markets than is generally 
supposed, and it is one of the most wholesome and nutri- 
tious of meats. 

In this connection it is interesting to note the table of 
eomiparative analysis of grasses and leaves, taken from 
Johnson's "How crops grow" and wihich is as follows. 

Protein. Starch, etc. Fats. 

Gooid pasture grass 3.5 9.7 .8 

Rich pasture 4.5 10.1 1.0 

Leaves of trees .5.2 15.2 1.5 

Red cloveir 3.3 7.0 .7 

Now goats lise principally on leaves, and t:his accounts 
for 'their excessive vitality, which is well knoiwn to a 
large majority of the medical profession, who often pre- 
scribe the meat and milk for infants and invalids, and have 
of late been experimenting in other directions, with hy- 
podermic injection? of the .lymphatic fluid itaken from 
goats, etc. 

Tlhere are various types of Angoa-a goats, some liaving 
a kind of oil in the fleece, somewhat as sheep have. This 
has been bred to an extreme in some flocks in South 
Africa, and is now regarded there as not being an essential 
to the production of the best mohair, and While it adds to 
the weight of the clips, buyers discriminate against it 
just as they do similar shrinkage in wooil. Angora igoats are 
handled very much as sheep are in a general way, the most 
marked difference being at kidding time, when the kids are 
not alloiweid to go witDi the flock until abo-ut six weeks old. 
This is not because the na.nnies disown their kids, or that 
the latter are not as lively as lamibs, but because the exces- 
sive vitaaity in the nanny prompts it to travel far in search 
of food, and the kid cannot keep up with the pace. 

The great art .in raising kids is to allow the nanny to 
become well acquainted with the individual characteristics 
of her ow.n kid before it is mixed with others; this may 
take a longer or a shorter time, 'largely according to the 
experience aoid temperament of the nanny. 

In a general way, if the kids are loose, there should 
not be over 25 together in a pen until they are a week 



THE GOAT. 



379 



old, or over 50 until t\yo weeks old. After then Dhere is 
coimparatively little trouble. Tibe nannies' sense of loca- 
tion is very keen and -many flock masters, -where they 
have a large number, make a practice of staking tihe kids. 
by sihort strings tied to pegs wliich are driven in the 
ground under the shade of a grove of trees. Many hun- 
dred are sometimes pegged out in t.his way, each nanny 
knowing exactly where to go to find iher O'wn kid, an<l the 
string is kept on the same peg, but changed from one 
leg to another so ^as to avoid laming ithe kid. I do nat 
like this system because: 

1st. Wihen it is once started you liave to keei^ it up 
longer than it is .good for tlae kid to be coinfined. 2d. 
In case of a cold storm it often results in miuch loss 
of kids. I prefer a system of small pens, putting a dif- 
ferent (Colored mark on the base of ithe nannies horns, to 
know^ which pen their kids are in, then cutting the nan- 




nies into their respective pens through a chute and con- 
centrating these small pens into a larger one as the kids 
become old enough to go in larger numbers; and if nec- 
essary drafting some of the oldest of these off to a new 
range where the number requires it. 

Where it is necessaiy to keep the kids back in the 
pen, I bave found «the bridge slio^wn in the cut to be of 
great assistance, as the kids do not often venture on it. 



380 



THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 



and when they do, can be easily oaiight by the operator 
at the side, without interrupting the steady flow of the 





•"1 


l'"ttiT 




1 ->r>- . 





goats through the opening. The bridge is also very useful 
for eounting the goats, as they go over it more steadily 
than throug'h an open gateway. 

Angora goats seldom breed oftener than once a year, 
and about 7 to 10 per cent have twins. They eat the 
same feed that sheep will, in "the event of being housed 
during a storra or for ahy other puipose. If a s/helter 
againsit bad weather is 'provided where they can have 
access to it, they will go to it whenever necess•ar3^ The 
best fence for confining Angora goats, whether in pen 
or pasture, is one of woven wire netting; the mesh should 
not be over 3x6 inches near fthe boittoim, or the kids will 
get their heads throug'ih, and are unable to get them 
back; for a pen fence, four feet hig'h is sufficient for all 
usual purposes, and a pasture can be made with this 
class of fence two feet hig'h and barbed wires above it 
to turn other stock. 

The only parasites that trouble goats in 'this country 
are lice, and these do not usually increase muc;h, except 
When goats are confined in dirty pen^. They can be ex- 
terminated by dipping the goats just as sheep are dipped. 



THE GOAT. 38] 

but this is seldom done, as most of the lice drop off when 
the gloats are shoru. 

Beyond 'this goats are singularly free from disease of 
any nature, so much so that I am inclined to agree with 
Col. W. W. Haupt, of Kyle, Texas, who was for over 
30 years one of the most successful breeders in that state, 
and who, in answer to the que tion as to what diseases 
goats ihave, replied, "I never saw a sick goat in mj' life." 

Angora goats are usually shorn twice a year in the 
South, as they seem to (thrive better througli the com- 
paratively warm winters, but once a year is preferable 
in the North. 

The kids slhould be timed to begin coiming after rea- 
sonably ste-ady warm weather sets in, and it .is an ad- 
vantage to s'hear before kidding eouDmences. 

SQiearing is done in the same manner as with sheep, 
but two goats can be shorn In about the same time that 
it takes to shear one well wooled sheep. 

There is likely to be a steady demand for .many years 
for all tlie anohair that can .be raised liere, as at present 
the amount .produced is but a small proportion of what 
is required by the mohair mills, the re t being imported 
from Turkey and Soiutli Africa. And the unwarranted 
prejudice against the meat is rapidly becoauing a thing 
of tlie past. American agriculturists are not long in real- 
izing the intrinsic value of any class of live stock wlien 
this is once reasonably demonstrated, but it is curious 
to note how little the general public kno'XA's about Angora 
goats. 

There were several peus of these animals in the live 
stock exhibit at the Trans-:Mississippi and International 
Exposition at Omalia in 1898. 

The goats were below the ^lerino slieep. and perhaps 
thi-; served to emphasize their white appearance in con- 
trast with the dark surfaces of 'the sTieep in the barns 
thro'Ugh wlhidh the visitors had just passed. The fir*t 
exclamation from the fair sex on entry was probably >=.oime- 
^Hiat' guarded, a; "Oh. aint they cute: just as ■v\''hite as 
tlhey can be!" 

"They must be S'hropslhire sheep." n rafah one would 
suggesit; when the 'male element would pull itself together 



3S2 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP. 

and uncork <its wisdom for the benefit of those who were 
less well informed, in a-bont the following fashion: 

"Why no, them'^; Roekj^ mountain .g-oats." "Is that 
so," chimes in a shabby genteel individual, "I thought 
they call them Merino goats." "No, Rocky moiuntain goats; 
knoiw 'em as far as I ken see 'em; my brot(lier-in-law used 
to have one, kep' it in 'his livery stable to keep his horse > 
healthy and the blame thing was most of the time on top 
of the ibarn tearing off the sliingles." 

"Oh, I know that kind of a goat," ventures another 
man, "ibut these is different; .seems to me they call 'em 
ca symeres or some such name. Wonder what they're 
good for, anyhow?" 

"Why, they shear 'em like sheep; wool's kinder coarser 
than sheep's wool, and they make up this alpacca the}'^ 
call it 'that umbrellas are covered with. Say mister," 
turning 'to owner of goats, "wlio oiwns these goats'?" 

"They belong to me." 

"That so? Well, what do you feed tlhem on?" 

"Oh, they eat leaves, some grass, and about anything 
a sheep will eat." 

Here a funny man chimes in with, "Yes, and tin 
cans, clothes lines, 'bill posters and any old paper that's 
handy." 

"O'h, ye ," remarks 'the goat man blandly, "they are 
very fond of all kinds of paper excei^ting political news- 
papers during a presidential campaign; they're generally 
too 'hot for them." 

About this time the audience begins to think it's be- 
ing fooled, and some long-faced, over-dressed individual 
with an imitation diamond in his ibosom, remarks with a 
"let's get doi^^ to business" air, "Well, say, what do 
they use this w^ool for, anyhow?" 

Sizing up the gang, the owner of the goats assumes 
a soiber air and in a confidential -tone of voice remarks: 
"Why, to tell you the truth, T\4iile yon busy, intellectual 
people who travel 'and enjoy yoiirselves, don't realize the 
fact, you make good use of the material of wihich this 
moihair, as it is called, is made whenever you take a 
railroad journey. You iknow this velvety kind of plush that 
Pullman car seats are covered with;" everyone nods as- 



THE GOAT. 383 

sent, especially the shabby j^enteel individual; "woll that's 
made of this hair, and yet 'haw few of you realize this, 
thouglh sio con^^tantly coming in contact with it." 

Croiwd disperses, each mem.ber much pleased with the 
idea, that the rest (including 'tihe goat man) are impressed 
with his or iher importance Mien travelling. 

W. G. HUGHES. 



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